Chapter 3
第三章
The Shaping of the Nation （1066-1381）
英國的形成（公元1066-1381）
I. Norman Rule （1066-1381）
諾曼統(tǒng)治（公元1066-1381）
1. William's Rule （1066-1087）
威廉一世的統(tǒng)治（公元1066-1087）
England's feudalism under the rule of William the Conqueror
在威廉統(tǒng)治下的英國封建制度
①Under William， the feudal system in England was completely established. ②According to this system， the King owned all the land personally. ③William gave his barons large estates in England in return for a promise of military service and a proportion of the land's produce. ④These estates were scattered far and wide over the country， so that those who held them could not easily combine to rebel the king. ⑤The barons， who had become William's tenants-in-chief， parceled out land to the lesser nobles， knights and freemen， also in return for goods and services. ⑥At the bottom of the feudal scale were the villeins or serfs. ⑦One peculiar feature of the feudal system of England was that all landowners must take the oath of allegiance，not only to their immediate lord， but also to the king.
①在威廉統(tǒng)治下，英國的封建制度得到完全確立。②根據(jù)此制度，國王擁有全國所有土地。③威廉把英國的大片土地分給貴族，條件是換取對方服役和收租。④這些地產(chǎn)分散于各處，這樣土地?fù)碛姓呔筒灰茁?lián)合起來反叛國王。⑤已成為國王土地承租人的貴族又把土地分配給小貴族、騎士和自由民，同樣換取貨物和服役。⑥在封建等級底層的是農(nóng)奴。⑦英國封建制獨(dú)有的特色就是，無論是土地承租人還是二佃戶，都必須要宣誓效忠于直接領(lǐng)主，而且要效忠于國王。
2. King Henry II and his reforms
亨利二世國王和他的改革
The ways King Henry II consolidate the monarchy.
亨利二世鞏固君主制的途徑。
Henry II took some measures to consolidate the monarchy. He forced the Flemish mercenaries to leave England； recalled grants of Royal lands made by his previous king Stephen； demolished many castles built in Stephen‘s time； strengthened and widened the powers of his sheriffs and relied for armed support upon a militia composed of English freemen.
亨利二世采取了一些措施鞏固君主制。他迫使弗蘭德斯雇傭軍離開英國，收回史蒂芬森贈(zèng)出皇室土地；拆除幾十座史蒂芬森時(shí)造德城堡，加強(qiáng)并擴(kuò)大了他的行政長官們的權(quán)力，依靠由英國自由民組成的民兵獲取軍事支持。
The ways Henry II reform the courts and the law.
亨利二世對法院及法律進(jìn)行改革的方式。
King Henry II greatly strengthened the Court and extended its judicial work. He divided the whole country into six circuits and appointed justices to each. Cases were therefore heard before the intermittent justices who applied the law impartially. During his reign， a common law was gradually established in place of the previous laws of the local barons. He also introduced a new jury system to replace the old ordeal-based trial system. Besides， he shifted the trial of clergymen charged with criminal offenses from the Bishop's court to the King's court.
亨利二世大大加強(qiáng)了王家法院，擴(kuò)展了其司法工作的職權(quán)范圍。他將全國分為六個(gè)審制區(qū)。案件更多地由巡回法官審理，并不偏不倚地使用法律。在他統(tǒng)治時(shí)期，逐漸建立起超越地方領(lǐng)主法律的普遍法。另外，他用陪審員制度代替了舊的殘酷的審判制度。他堅(jiān)持被控犯有刑事罪的神職人員應(yīng)由國王法庭審判，而不由主教法庭審判。
II.Contents and the significance of the Great Charter
《大憲章》的內(nèi)容及意義
Great Charter was signed by King John in 1215 under the press of the barons. It consists of sixty-three clauses. Its important provisions are as follows： （1） no tax should be made without the approval of the Grand Council； （2） no freemen should be arrested， imprisoned or deprived of their property； （3） the Church should possess all its rights， together with freedom of elections； （4） London and other towns should retain their traditional rights and privileges， and （5） there should be the same weights and measures throughout the country. Although The Great Charter has long been popularly regarded as the foundation of English liberties， it was a statement of the feudal and legal relationships between the Crown and the barons， a guarantee of the freedom of the Church and a limitation of the powers of the king. The spirit of the Great Charter was the limitation of the powers of the king， keeping them within the bounds of the feudal law of the land.
《大憲章》是約翰國王1215年在封建貴族壓力下簽定的?！洞髴椪隆房偣?3條，其中最重要的內(nèi)容是：（1） 未經(jīng)大議會同意，不得征稅；（2） 只有根據(jù)國家有關(guān)法律才能逮捕、監(jiān)禁自由人以及剝奪他們的財(cái)產(chǎn)；（3）教會應(yīng)享受其所有權(quán)利且有選舉自由；（4） 倫敦和其它城鎮(zhèn)應(yīng)保留其古時(shí)的權(quán)力和特權(quán)；（5） 全國要使用統(tǒng)一的重量和長度度量衡。盡管人們普遍認(rèn)為《大憲章》為英國的自由奠定了基礎(chǔ)，但該憲章只是規(guī)定國王和貴族之間封建關(guān)系和法律關(guān)系的文件，保證了教會的自由，限制了國王權(quán)利?！洞髴椪隆返木袷窍拗茋鯔?quán)力，使其在英國封建法律允許的范圍內(nèi)活動(dòng)。
III.The origins of the English Parliament
英國議會的起源
The Great Council is known to be the prototype of the current British Parliament. In 1265， Simon de Montfort summoned the Great Council， together with two knights from each county and two citizens from each town. It later developed into the House of Lords and the House of Commons. Its main role was to offer advice. There were no elections or parties. And the most important part of Parliament was the House of Lords.
大議會是當(dāng)今英國議會的原型。1265年，西門德孟福爾召開大議會，各縣有兩名騎士，各鎮(zhèn)有兩名市民參加。大議會發(fā)展到后來演變成議會，分為上議院和下議院。其作用是咨詢而非決定；也沒有選舉和政黨。議會的最重要的部分是上議院。
IV.The Hundred Years' War and its consequences.
百年戰(zhàn)爭及其結(jié)果
The Hundred Years‘ War refers to the war between England and France that lasted intermittently from 1337 to 1453. The causes of the war were partly territorial and partly economic. The territorial causes were related with the possession by the English kings of the large duchy in France， while the French kings coveted this large slice. The economic causes were connected with cloth manufacturing towns in Flanders， which were the importer of English wool， but they were loyal to the French king politically. Besides， England's desire to stop France from giving aid to Scots and a growing sense of nationalism were the other causes.
The English's being driven out of France is regarded as a blessing for both countries. If the English had remained in France， the superior size and wealth of France would have hindered the development of a separate English national identity， while France was hindered so long as a foreign power occupied so much French territory.
百年戰(zhàn)爭指1337年到1453年英法之間一場斷斷續(xù)續(xù)的戰(zhàn)爭，戰(zhàn)爭的起因既有領(lǐng)土因素又有經(jīng)濟(jì)因素。領(lǐng)土起因尤其是與英國國王擁有法國的阿基坦大片公爵領(lǐng)地有密切關(guān)系，隨著法國國王勢力日增，他們渴望占領(lǐng)這片在他們領(lǐng)土內(nèi)的土地。經(jīng)濟(jì)原因則與弗蘭德斯有關(guān)。弗蘭德斯地區(qū)生產(chǎn)棉布的城鎮(zhèn)是英國羊毛的主要進(jìn)口商，但這些城鎮(zhèn)在政治上卻效忠法國國王。其他原因還有英國試圖阻止法國幫助蘇格蘭人，以及不斷覺醒的民族意識。
戰(zhàn)爭的結(jié)果：把英國人趕出法國對兩個(gè)國家都是幸事：若國車人繼續(xù)留在法國，那么法國人在領(lǐng)土和財(cái)富上所占的優(yōu)勢必然會阻礙分離的英國民族的發(fā)展；而法國民族被外國勢力占領(lǐng)了眾多的領(lǐng)土，發(fā)展更是長期受阻。
V. The Black Death
黑死病
The Black Death is the modern name given to the deadly epidemic disease spread by rat fleas across Europe in the 14th century. It swept through England in the summer of 1348. It reduced England's population from four million to two million by the end of the 14th century.
The economic consequences of the Black Death were far-reaching. As a result of the plague， much land was left untended and there was a terrible shortage of labour. The surviving peasants had better bargaining power and were in a position to change their serfdom into paid labour. Some landlords， unable or unwilling to pay higher wages， tried to force peasants back into serfdom. In 1351 the government issued a Statute of Labourers which made it a crime for peasants to ask for more wages or for their employers to pay more than the rates laid down by the Justices of the Peace.
黑死病是指由鼠疫蚤傳播的致命的淋巴腺鼠疫，是一種流行疾病，在14世紀(jì)傳播了到歐洲。1348年夏天橫掃全英國。英國的人口在14世紀(jì)末從400萬銳減至200萬。
黑死病對經(jīng)濟(jì)造成的后果更為深遠(yuǎn)。鼠疫導(dǎo)致了大片土地?zé)o人照管和勞動(dòng)力極度匱乏。地主想把耕地變?yōu)槿肆π枨筝^少的牧場。存活的農(nóng)民處于有利的計(jì)價(jià)還價(jià)地位，從農(nóng)奴變?yōu)楣蛡騽趧?dòng)力。于是一些支付不起或不愿意支付較高工資的地主想方設(shè)法迫使農(nóng)民重返農(nóng)奴地位。1351年政府頒布“勞工法令”，規(guī)定農(nóng)民們漲工資的要求，或者是雇主支付比地方官制訂的工資水平要高的工資都是犯罪。
VI. The Peasant Uprising of 1381 and its significance
1381年農(nóng)民起義及其意義
Armed villagers and townsmen of Kent and Essex， led by Wat Tyler and Jack Straw， moved on London in June， 1381. The king was forced to accept their demands. Most of the rebels dispersed and went home， while Tyler and other leaders stayed on for more rights. Tyler was killed at a meeting with the king.
The uprising was brutally suppressed， but it had far-reaching significance in English history. First， it directed against the rich clergy， lawyers and the landowners. Second， it dealt a telling blow to villeinage， and third， a new class of yeomen farmers emerged， paving the way to the development of capitalism.
1381年6月，在瓦特 泰勒和杰克 斯特勞領(lǐng)導(dǎo)下，凱特郡和埃塞克斯郡的農(nóng)民和市民武裝起來發(fā)動(dòng)起義，并向倫敦進(jìn)發(fā)。國王被迫接受了他們的要求。大多數(shù)起義農(nóng)民解散回家，但泰勒和其他堅(jiān)決的農(nóng)民留下來要求得到更多的法律、宗教和政治權(quán)利。泰勒在又一次與國王的會見中被殺死。
盡管起義被血腥鎮(zhèn)壓，但在英國歷留下了深遠(yuǎn)的影響。這次起義具有真實(shí)的社會性，把矛頭直接對準(zhǔn)了富有的教職人員、律師和地主。這次起義沉重打擊了封建農(nóng)奴制度，產(chǎn)生了全新的自耕農(nóng)階級，為資本主義發(fā)展鋪設(shè)了道路。
第三章
The Shaping of the Nation （1066-1381）
英國的形成（公元1066-1381）
I. Norman Rule （1066-1381）
諾曼統(tǒng)治（公元1066-1381）
1. William's Rule （1066-1087）
威廉一世的統(tǒng)治（公元1066-1087）
England's feudalism under the rule of William the Conqueror
在威廉統(tǒng)治下的英國封建制度
①Under William， the feudal system in England was completely established. ②According to this system， the King owned all the land personally. ③William gave his barons large estates in England in return for a promise of military service and a proportion of the land's produce. ④These estates were scattered far and wide over the country， so that those who held them could not easily combine to rebel the king. ⑤The barons， who had become William's tenants-in-chief， parceled out land to the lesser nobles， knights and freemen， also in return for goods and services. ⑥At the bottom of the feudal scale were the villeins or serfs. ⑦One peculiar feature of the feudal system of England was that all landowners must take the oath of allegiance，not only to their immediate lord， but also to the king.
①在威廉統(tǒng)治下，英國的封建制度得到完全確立。②根據(jù)此制度，國王擁有全國所有土地。③威廉把英國的大片土地分給貴族，條件是換取對方服役和收租。④這些地產(chǎn)分散于各處，這樣土地?fù)碛姓呔筒灰茁?lián)合起來反叛國王。⑤已成為國王土地承租人的貴族又把土地分配給小貴族、騎士和自由民，同樣換取貨物和服役。⑥在封建等級底層的是農(nóng)奴。⑦英國封建制獨(dú)有的特色就是，無論是土地承租人還是二佃戶，都必須要宣誓效忠于直接領(lǐng)主，而且要效忠于國王。
2. King Henry II and his reforms
亨利二世國王和他的改革
The ways King Henry II consolidate the monarchy.
亨利二世鞏固君主制的途徑。
Henry II took some measures to consolidate the monarchy. He forced the Flemish mercenaries to leave England； recalled grants of Royal lands made by his previous king Stephen； demolished many castles built in Stephen‘s time； strengthened and widened the powers of his sheriffs and relied for armed support upon a militia composed of English freemen.
亨利二世采取了一些措施鞏固君主制。他迫使弗蘭德斯雇傭軍離開英國，收回史蒂芬森贈(zèng)出皇室土地；拆除幾十座史蒂芬森時(shí)造德城堡，加強(qiáng)并擴(kuò)大了他的行政長官們的權(quán)力，依靠由英國自由民組成的民兵獲取軍事支持。
The ways Henry II reform the courts and the law.
亨利二世對法院及法律進(jìn)行改革的方式。
King Henry II greatly strengthened the Court and extended its judicial work. He divided the whole country into six circuits and appointed justices to each. Cases were therefore heard before the intermittent justices who applied the law impartially. During his reign， a common law was gradually established in place of the previous laws of the local barons. He also introduced a new jury system to replace the old ordeal-based trial system. Besides， he shifted the trial of clergymen charged with criminal offenses from the Bishop's court to the King's court.
亨利二世大大加強(qiáng)了王家法院，擴(kuò)展了其司法工作的職權(quán)范圍。他將全國分為六個(gè)審制區(qū)。案件更多地由巡回法官審理，并不偏不倚地使用法律。在他統(tǒng)治時(shí)期，逐漸建立起超越地方領(lǐng)主法律的普遍法。另外，他用陪審員制度代替了舊的殘酷的審判制度。他堅(jiān)持被控犯有刑事罪的神職人員應(yīng)由國王法庭審判，而不由主教法庭審判。
II.Contents and the significance of the Great Charter
《大憲章》的內(nèi)容及意義
Great Charter was signed by King John in 1215 under the press of the barons. It consists of sixty-three clauses. Its important provisions are as follows： （1） no tax should be made without the approval of the Grand Council； （2） no freemen should be arrested， imprisoned or deprived of their property； （3） the Church should possess all its rights， together with freedom of elections； （4） London and other towns should retain their traditional rights and privileges， and （5） there should be the same weights and measures throughout the country. Although The Great Charter has long been popularly regarded as the foundation of English liberties， it was a statement of the feudal and legal relationships between the Crown and the barons， a guarantee of the freedom of the Church and a limitation of the powers of the king. The spirit of the Great Charter was the limitation of the powers of the king， keeping them within the bounds of the feudal law of the land.
《大憲章》是約翰國王1215年在封建貴族壓力下簽定的?！洞髴椪隆房偣?3條，其中最重要的內(nèi)容是：（1） 未經(jīng)大議會同意，不得征稅；（2） 只有根據(jù)國家有關(guān)法律才能逮捕、監(jiān)禁自由人以及剝奪他們的財(cái)產(chǎn)；（3）教會應(yīng)享受其所有權(quán)利且有選舉自由；（4） 倫敦和其它城鎮(zhèn)應(yīng)保留其古時(shí)的權(quán)力和特權(quán)；（5） 全國要使用統(tǒng)一的重量和長度度量衡。盡管人們普遍認(rèn)為《大憲章》為英國的自由奠定了基礎(chǔ)，但該憲章只是規(guī)定國王和貴族之間封建關(guān)系和法律關(guān)系的文件，保證了教會的自由，限制了國王權(quán)利?！洞髴椪隆返木袷窍拗茋鯔?quán)力，使其在英國封建法律允許的范圍內(nèi)活動(dòng)。
III.The origins of the English Parliament
英國議會的起源
The Great Council is known to be the prototype of the current British Parliament. In 1265， Simon de Montfort summoned the Great Council， together with two knights from each county and two citizens from each town. It later developed into the House of Lords and the House of Commons. Its main role was to offer advice. There were no elections or parties. And the most important part of Parliament was the House of Lords.
大議會是當(dāng)今英國議會的原型。1265年，西門德孟福爾召開大議會，各縣有兩名騎士，各鎮(zhèn)有兩名市民參加。大議會發(fā)展到后來演變成議會，分為上議院和下議院。其作用是咨詢而非決定；也沒有選舉和政黨。議會的最重要的部分是上議院。
IV.The Hundred Years' War and its consequences.
百年戰(zhàn)爭及其結(jié)果
The Hundred Years‘ War refers to the war between England and France that lasted intermittently from 1337 to 1453. The causes of the war were partly territorial and partly economic. The territorial causes were related with the possession by the English kings of the large duchy in France， while the French kings coveted this large slice. The economic causes were connected with cloth manufacturing towns in Flanders， which were the importer of English wool， but they were loyal to the French king politically. Besides， England's desire to stop France from giving aid to Scots and a growing sense of nationalism were the other causes.
The English's being driven out of France is regarded as a blessing for both countries. If the English had remained in France， the superior size and wealth of France would have hindered the development of a separate English national identity， while France was hindered so long as a foreign power occupied so much French territory.
百年戰(zhàn)爭指1337年到1453年英法之間一場斷斷續(xù)續(xù)的戰(zhàn)爭，戰(zhàn)爭的起因既有領(lǐng)土因素又有經(jīng)濟(jì)因素。領(lǐng)土起因尤其是與英國國王擁有法國的阿基坦大片公爵領(lǐng)地有密切關(guān)系，隨著法國國王勢力日增，他們渴望占領(lǐng)這片在他們領(lǐng)土內(nèi)的土地。經(jīng)濟(jì)原因則與弗蘭德斯有關(guān)。弗蘭德斯地區(qū)生產(chǎn)棉布的城鎮(zhèn)是英國羊毛的主要進(jìn)口商，但這些城鎮(zhèn)在政治上卻效忠法國國王。其他原因還有英國試圖阻止法國幫助蘇格蘭人，以及不斷覺醒的民族意識。
戰(zhàn)爭的結(jié)果：把英國人趕出法國對兩個(gè)國家都是幸事：若國車人繼續(xù)留在法國，那么法國人在領(lǐng)土和財(cái)富上所占的優(yōu)勢必然會阻礙分離的英國民族的發(fā)展；而法國民族被外國勢力占領(lǐng)了眾多的領(lǐng)土，發(fā)展更是長期受阻。
V. The Black Death
黑死病
The Black Death is the modern name given to the deadly epidemic disease spread by rat fleas across Europe in the 14th century. It swept through England in the summer of 1348. It reduced England's population from four million to two million by the end of the 14th century.
The economic consequences of the Black Death were far-reaching. As a result of the plague， much land was left untended and there was a terrible shortage of labour. The surviving peasants had better bargaining power and were in a position to change their serfdom into paid labour. Some landlords， unable or unwilling to pay higher wages， tried to force peasants back into serfdom. In 1351 the government issued a Statute of Labourers which made it a crime for peasants to ask for more wages or for their employers to pay more than the rates laid down by the Justices of the Peace.
黑死病是指由鼠疫蚤傳播的致命的淋巴腺鼠疫，是一種流行疾病，在14世紀(jì)傳播了到歐洲。1348年夏天橫掃全英國。英國的人口在14世紀(jì)末從400萬銳減至200萬。
黑死病對經(jīng)濟(jì)造成的后果更為深遠(yuǎn)。鼠疫導(dǎo)致了大片土地?zé)o人照管和勞動(dòng)力極度匱乏。地主想把耕地變?yōu)槿肆π枨筝^少的牧場。存活的農(nóng)民處于有利的計(jì)價(jià)還價(jià)地位，從農(nóng)奴變?yōu)楣蛡騽趧?dòng)力。于是一些支付不起或不愿意支付較高工資的地主想方設(shè)法迫使農(nóng)民重返農(nóng)奴地位。1351年政府頒布“勞工法令”，規(guī)定農(nóng)民們漲工資的要求，或者是雇主支付比地方官制訂的工資水平要高的工資都是犯罪。
VI. The Peasant Uprising of 1381 and its significance
1381年農(nóng)民起義及其意義
Armed villagers and townsmen of Kent and Essex， led by Wat Tyler and Jack Straw， moved on London in June， 1381. The king was forced to accept their demands. Most of the rebels dispersed and went home， while Tyler and other leaders stayed on for more rights. Tyler was killed at a meeting with the king.
The uprising was brutally suppressed， but it had far-reaching significance in English history. First， it directed against the rich clergy， lawyers and the landowners. Second， it dealt a telling blow to villeinage， and third， a new class of yeomen farmers emerged， paving the way to the development of capitalism.
1381年6月，在瓦特 泰勒和杰克 斯特勞領(lǐng)導(dǎo)下，凱特郡和埃塞克斯郡的農(nóng)民和市民武裝起來發(fā)動(dòng)起義，并向倫敦進(jìn)發(fā)。國王被迫接受了他們的要求。大多數(shù)起義農(nóng)民解散回家，但泰勒和其他堅(jiān)決的農(nóng)民留下來要求得到更多的法律、宗教和政治權(quán)利。泰勒在又一次與國王的會見中被殺死。
盡管起義被血腥鎮(zhèn)壓，但在英國歷留下了深遠(yuǎn)的影響。這次起義具有真實(shí)的社會性，把矛頭直接對準(zhǔn)了富有的教職人員、律師和地主。這次起義沉重打擊了封建農(nóng)奴制度，產(chǎn)生了全新的自耕農(nóng)階級，為資本主義發(fā)展鋪設(shè)了道路。