自考“英語(yǔ)寫(xiě)作”精講復(fù)習(xí)(2)

字號(hào):

(三)寫(xiě)作類(lèi)型——記敘文,描寫(xiě)文
    英語(yǔ)寫(xiě)作類(lèi)型(Types of Writing)主要有四種:記敘文(Narration),描寫(xiě)文(Description),說(shuō)明文(Exposition)和議論文(Argumentation)。記敘文和描寫(xiě)文在考試中出現(xiàn)的頻率很低,幾乎不作直接考察,我們只是簡(jiǎn)單一帶而過(guò)。記敘文就是講故事,而且往往是讓人在聽(tīng)完或讀完故事后有所思考,這就是記敘文的寫(xiě)作目的(可能是隱含的也可能是外顯的)。講故事要先交待清楚故事的語(yǔ)境即時(shí)間,地點(diǎn)和人物,然后依據(jù)時(shí)間順序展開(kāi)情節(jié)(這里說(shuō)得是最常見(jiàn)的順敘,當(dāng)然還有倒敘,插敘等),講故事時(shí)要注意敘事的角度(第一人稱(chēng)還是第三人稱(chēng)),故事的跌宕起伏(起端,發(fā)展,高潮和結(jié)局)。
    描寫(xiě)文,簡(jiǎn)單的說(shuō)就是用語(yǔ)言文字的筆來(lái)繪畫(huà),畫(huà)一副人物肖像,畫(huà)一副地點(diǎn)畫(huà),畫(huà)一副靜物畫(huà),畫(huà)一副場(chǎng)景畫(huà)等。用畫(huà)筆作畫(huà),最重要的是顏色的淡妝濃抹,描寫(xiě)靠的是文字的力量,例如形容詞,副詞的使用等。但是無(wú)論如何畫(huà),都要給人留下一個(gè)深刻的印象,這一印象就是描寫(xiě)文的寫(xiě)作目的。因此,同學(xué)們?cè)趯?xiě)描寫(xiě)文時(shí)要圍繞著這一印象(中心)來(lái)組織寫(xiě)作。
    雖然說(shuō)記敘文和說(shuō)明文兩種文體在英語(yǔ)寫(xiě)作考試中不直接考察,但是它們的作用不容忽視,它們可以被廣泛地應(yīng)用在說(shuō)明文、議論文的引言段和舉例中,能增加說(shuō)明文和議論文的可讀性,趣味性。
    (四)寫(xiě)作類(lèi)型——說(shuō)明文
    說(shuō)明文(Exposition)是為了解釋或闡述某一問(wèn)題,某一過(guò)程或是關(guān)系的寫(xiě)作類(lèi)型。其目的是通過(guò)解釋?zhuān)谷嗣靼啄臣虑?,明白如何去做一件事情,或是明白一件事情的原因,及其引發(fā)的后果等。
    1.總體結(jié)構(gòu)
    說(shuō)明文有比較明確的行文模式,初學(xué)者應(yīng)該對(duì)此加以熟悉,才能寫(xiě)好說(shuō)明文。大致來(lái)講,說(shuō)明文分為三個(gè)部分,五個(gè)段落(可適當(dāng)增加一兩個(gè)段落)。一個(gè)引言段,三個(gè)主體段,一個(gè)結(jié)論段。可參見(jiàn)下圖:
    2. 引言段 (Introduction)
    這一段落的主要目的有兩個(gè):引入討論的話題(topic),并縮小討論范圍,提出論點(diǎn)。因此這一段落最為常見(jiàn)的發(fā)展模式就是從一般到具體,從寬泛到合適。通常來(lái)講,我們不直接將觀點(diǎn)(thesis)擺出來(lái),而是應(yīng)該有一些過(guò)渡,逐漸的從寬到窄,在引言段的最后提出觀點(diǎn)。
    a. 引入話題
    引入話題的方法和手段很多,例如提供相關(guān)背景知識(shí),引用名人名言,名人軼事,善用描寫(xiě),記敘等手段對(duì)某一現(xiàn)象加以描述等??偠灾?,引言要簡(jiǎn)練,自然流暢,能抓住讀者的興趣。大家在閱讀范文時(shí)要有意識(shí)地分析文章的引言段,看作者是如何引入話題的,自己可以仿寫(xiě)。這對(duì)寫(xiě)作能力的提高幫助很大。例如下面幾個(gè)例子。
    The other day, I announced that I would go abroad for further studies right after my college education. My decision evoked the immediate objection of my family: Why? Why should I borrow a huge sum of money for overseas studies while I might receive the same education at home at relatively low cost? My answer is: in addition to knowledge, I can gain experiences that those who stay at home will never have.
    在這一段落中,作者用個(gè)人經(jīng)歷引出主題:海外留學(xué),接著描寫(xiě)家人的反對(duì),和反對(duì)的理由。作者使用疑問(wèn)句,表達(dá)了家人的疑問(wèn),又為后面作者提出論點(diǎn)做了準(zhǔn)備。銜接流暢,一氣呵成。
    Telecommuting refers to office workers spending much of their time working at home and communicating with their companies through their computers. With the development of computer technologies, it is growing fast and expected to be common for most office workers in the coming decades. The use of telecommuting, however, may trigger major changes to corporate structure, workers' lifestyles and even urban planning.
    這一段落中,首先對(duì)大家比較陌生的術(shù)語(yǔ)telecommuting做了解釋?zhuān)鲞h(yuǎn)程辦公這一主題,然后描寫(xiě)這種辦公形式的發(fā)展趨勢(shì),作者利用however一轉(zhuǎn),提出自己的觀點(diǎn)。
    About one of man's frailties Thomas Wolfe wrote, “he talks of the future and he wastes it as it comes.” This observation is related to a principle by which I try (without always succeeding) to live. I believe living in the present because it is futile to dwell on the past, to worry about the future, or to miss anything in the only reality I know.
    這一段落中,作者引用Wolfe的名言來(lái)引入話題,然后點(diǎn)出自己的論點(diǎn)。
    2. 觀點(diǎn)/中心思想(Thesis)
    觀點(diǎn)是說(shuō)明文的核心,題眼或是靈魂。一篇好的說(shuō)明文一定要觀點(diǎn)明確,簡(jiǎn)潔明了,具有震撼力。它是一篇文章的總結(jié),它類(lèi)似于初級(jí)寫(xiě)作中段落的主題句,但是它是涵蓋全篇的,可能會(huì)包含幾個(gè)主題句。說(shuō)明文的觀點(diǎn)可以直接地表述出來(lái),也可以隱含的表述。但就英語(yǔ)寫(xiě)作學(xué)習(xí)者來(lái)講,我們提倡明示的觀點(diǎn),而且要對(duì)觀點(diǎn)進(jìn)行認(rèn)真的思考,提煉,要下足功夫。
    簡(jiǎn)單來(lái)講,觀點(diǎn)就是作者對(duì)某件事情,某種現(xiàn)象的看法,或是對(duì)事物要說(shuō)明的角度等。語(yǔ)法上來(lái)講,一般情況下它是一個(gè)陳述句,即 Thesis = Topic + aspects/Opinion.主語(yǔ)往往是主題(Topic),謂語(yǔ),賓語(yǔ),狀語(yǔ)或是定語(yǔ)往往是作者的觀點(diǎn)和說(shuō)明角度。例如:
    主語(yǔ) - 話題Topic 謂語(yǔ),賓語(yǔ) - 觀點(diǎn)Opinion
    The use of telecommuting, however, may trigger major changes
    Price promotions will do damage to a good brand.
    Studying overseas had both advantages and disadvantages.
    這里說(shuō)的只是一般形式,在現(xiàn)實(shí)中我們還會(huì)把我們的觀點(diǎn)用各種語(yǔ)言句式表達(dá)出來(lái),甚至?xí)軓?fù)雜,大大超過(guò)了簡(jiǎn)單的Topic + Opinion形式。例如:These skiers, I discovered, could be divided into distinct categories - for my own entertainment and for the purpose of findings appropriate skiing partners.
    好的論點(diǎn)要暗含文章的總體結(jié)構(gòu)。例如In choosing a major, a student has to consider various factors, such as personal interest, job opportunities and the availability of training. 但是萬(wàn)變不離其宗,觀點(diǎn)總是中心,而語(yǔ)言表現(xiàn)形式只是外在。因此,在考試解答大綱撰寫(xiě)題,和補(bǔ)齊段落題的閱讀階段,就應(yīng)該透過(guò)復(fù)雜的表現(xiàn)形式把握觀點(diǎn)的主旨;短文寫(xiě)作時(shí)要先確定觀點(diǎn),再推敲確定語(yǔ)言表達(dá)形式。
    c. 正文部分
    說(shuō)明文正文部分我們一般寫(xiě)三個(gè)段落。也就是對(duì)觀點(diǎn)展開(kāi)論述。這里涉及到的是段落寫(xiě)作。相信大家在初級(jí)寫(xiě)作階段,已經(jīng)掌握了段落寫(xiě)作的要領(lǐng)。這里一帶而過(guò),段落寫(xiě)作要注意段落的一致性(unity), 發(fā)展性(Development)和連貫性(Coherence)。
    1) 一致性(unity)
    即文章中所有內(nèi)容都要圍繞這文章的中心思想。我們可以具體從兩個(gè)方面來(lái)加以保證。一是,三個(gè)段落的內(nèi)容通過(guò)主題句(Topic Sentences)緊扣引言部分的中心思想。如下圖:
    例如一篇文章
    主題是Turning Failure into Success,
    中心思想是“Too much emphasis on success is not a good thing.”
    主題句1 Certain kinds of success can indeed be destructive.
    主題句2. Success that comes too early is also damaging.
    主題句3. Success is also bad when it's achieved at the cost of the quality of an experience.
    第二,就是每一個(gè)段落內(nèi)容都要圍繞自己的主題句思想展開(kāi)。要做到這一點(diǎn),作為段落靈魂的主題句(Topic Sentence)一般放在段落的開(kāi)始較好,后面是若干支持句。
    例如:
    主題句:These days lifestyles seem to change fast.
    支持句1. It is more than just clothing and hairstyle that are in style one year and out or date the next; it's a whole way of living.
    支持句2. One year people wear sunglasses on top of their heads and wear jeans and boots; they drink white wine and eat sushi at Japanese restaurants; for exercise they jog several miles a day.
    支持句3. However, the next year they notice that everything has changed.
    支持句4. Women wear long skirts; people drink expensive water from France and eat pasta at Italian restaurants; everyone seems to be exercising at health clubs.
    2) 發(fā)展性(Development)
    就是要充分發(fā)展段落主題思想。通過(guò)不同的角度,用想盡的事實(shí)例證來(lái)說(shuō)明。有了主題句,要把一個(gè)段落寫(xiě)好,稱(chēng)為well-developed paragraph, 需要了解一些常用的段落發(fā)展技巧辦法。
    舉例法(Exemplification)
    Americans generally like a lot of physical space in their organizational lives. Many American clichés point to this: “Give me some space,” “Get out of my face,” “Back off.” Hand shakes last only a second or so. If two passengers remain after a crowded elevator has emptied, they immediately take chance like steps to their respective corners.
    數(shù)據(jù)法(Statistics)
    English becomes the most taught language in the world. Two hundred and fifty million Chinese- more than the entire population of the United States- study English in eighty-nine countries, English is either a common second language or widely studied. In France, state-run secondary schools require students to study four years of English or German, most- at least 85 percent- choose English. In Japan, secondary students are required to take six years of English before graduation.
    對(duì)比分析(Contrast)
    Unfortunately, doing things badly has gone out of style. It used to be a mark of class if a lady or a gentleman sang a little, painted a little, played the violin a little. You didn't have to be good at it; the point was to be fortunate enough to have the leisure time for such pursuits. But in today's competitive world we have to be “experts” even in our hobbies.
    類(lèi)比法(Analogy)
    A western-style conversation between two people is like a game of tennis. If I introduce a topic, a conversational ball, I expect you to hit it back. If you agree with me, I don't expect you simply to agree and do nothing more. I expect you to add something - a reason for agreeing, another example, or a remark to carry the idea further. But I don't expect you always to agree. I am just as happy if you question me, or challenge me, or completely disagree with me. Whether you agree or disagree, your response will return the ball to me.
    權(quán)威法(Authoritative statements)
    Timing is another factor. “If you took George Washington and put him in 20th century he would go nowhere as a politician,” declared Deam Leoth Simonton, a professor of psychology at the university of California, “he was not an effective public speaker, and he didn't like shaking hands with the public. On the other hand, I am not sure Franklin Roosevelt would have done well in Washington's time.”
    3) 連貫性(Coherence)
    是英語(yǔ)寫(xiě)作中很重要的一個(gè)原則。它是指文章中的句子之間,段落之間彼此相互關(guān)聯(lián),銜接自然。句子間的連接主要是靠連接詞來(lái)完成。(重要連接詞參見(jiàn)附錄。)
    過(guò)渡詞表示邏輯意義可以分為一下幾類(lèi):
    A. 表舉例的
    For example, for instance, as a case in point, in the case of, as a illustration, such as, like, that is, say.
    B. 表示比較的
    Similarly, likewise, in the same manner, the same … as, like, both, equally important
    C. 表示對(duì)照的
    On the contrary, on the other hand, by contrast, unlike, whereas, rather than, conversely, instead, the opposite is true.
    D. 表示讓步的
    Although, though, nevertheless, however, but, yet, admittedly, it is true… but, in spite of, even though.
    E. 表示原因的
    Because, as, since, for, owing to, due to, as a result of, on account of
    F. 表示結(jié)果的
    Thus, so, hence, consequently, therefore, accordingly, for this reason, as a consequence
    G. 表示強(qiáng)調(diào)的
    Chiefly, especially, indeed, in fact, certainly, particularly, to be sure, actually, above all, most important, worse, as a matter of fact, no doubt
    H. 表示梯進(jìn)的
    First, second, in the first place, in the second place, next, also, besides, furthermore, moreover, in addition, what is more, for one thing, not only… but also.
    I. 表示時(shí)間的
    Earlier, previous, formerly, before, after, as, until, meanwhile, latter, afterwards, next.
    J. 表示結(jié)論的
    In conclusion, in short, on the whole, finally, lastly, to sum up, to conclude, in any event.
    K. 表示空間的
    Above, across, beyond, in front of, next to, opposite, under, below, nearby, close to
    d. 結(jié)論
    說(shuō)明文的結(jié)論往往是對(duì)觀點(diǎn)和中心思想進(jìn)行重新的敘述,總結(jié)全文,提出某一問(wèn)題的解決方案,或是對(duì)某一事件進(jìn)行預(yù)測(cè),提出警示,得到的啟發(fā)等。但是結(jié)論切忌在引出新話題,要簡(jiǎn)潔自然。