GRE作文Issue51詳解

字號:

Issue51
    "Education will be truly effective only when it is specifically designed to meet the individual needs and interests of each student."
    題目比較容易理解,翻譯為:唯有當(dāng)教育是專門為滿足個人需要和每個學(xué)生興趣的而設(shè)計的時候,教育才是真正有效的。但是要寫的深入,這個題目還是值得仔細(xì)思考的。
    題目分類:教育類
    教育類題目多,論點跟資料都比較豐富,相對來說是很好寫的話題,請大家把握這次機(jī)會,整理教育類題目的觀點跟資料,以后次類題目不在同主題中體現(xiàn)。
    首先來看一下本文中的三個關(guān)系
    (I) Education---------------主體
    (II) Effectiveness-----------要達(dá)到的效果
    (III) Meeting the individual needs and interests of each student-----------途徑本題可以總結(jié)為:(I)為達(dá)到(II)只能通過(III)
    邏輯關(guān)系已經(jīng)很清晰了,我們可以發(fā)問:
    1.(III)能達(dá)到(II)嗎?
    2.還有其他的途徑,可以使(I)達(dá)到(II)嗎?
    3.(II)跟(III)之間有沒有匹配的關(guān)系,也就是說是不是(III)這種途徑可以達(dá)到一種效果,另一種途徑可以達(dá)到另一種效果。要注意的是幾個修飾性的詞:
    1. Effective
    怎樣衡量教育的效果?怎樣的結(jié)果才算是effective?
    M-W的定義是producing a decided, decisive, or desired effect. 可以理解為達(dá)到預(yù)期的、期望的效果。這就引出另一個關(guān)鍵的問題:教育的目的是什么?教育的功能是什么?我們的教育是為了培養(yǎng)出怎樣的學(xué)生?不同年齡階段是否有不同的教育目標(biāo)?只有知道了我們教育的目標(biāo)是什么,才可以根據(jù)教育的實際結(jié)果來評判教育的效果。關(guān)于教育的目的、功能的學(xué)說有很多(在本文后補(bǔ)充了一篇資料),這里我想引用1996年聯(lián)合國教科文組織于巴黎會議議定的教育的目的:
    Learning to know;
    Learning to do;
    Learning to get together;
    Learning to be
    這個定義簡潔,容易考核。我們現(xiàn)在要做的就是把(III)拿過來,看看它能否達(dá)到以上的目的。(1)(III)可以實現(xiàn)learning to know。
    *感興趣的東西,一般來說學(xué)生學(xué)的好??梢杂懻撆d趣在學(xué)習(xí)中扮演的角色,重要性。
    *但是是否能學(xué)到廣泛的知識,是否是well-round education, 值得懷疑(牽扯到了generalist & specialist的問題)
    *一些基礎(chǔ)知識e.g. math, 和實用的知識,是否能通過興趣獲得,實際是很多人dislike them
    *學(xué)生感興趣就一定能學(xué)好嗎?不一定吧。他們需要指導(dǎo)。
    First, many interests of students are whims that cannot last long and without any purpose or plan. Thus, it is really dubious whether they can persist.
    Second, since young students are aimless, the process of learning is not systematic without any instructions. That’s why even if they can learn by interests, they should be under the guidance of educators.
    Third, young students lack the capacity of judgment. Unless they have developed their own ability to tell the right from the wrong, educators shouldn’t allow students to do anything they want.
    (2)(III)可以實現(xiàn)learning to do 類似于(1)討論的幾種情況,只不過是從學(xué)習(xí)技術(shù)、方法的角度。(3)顯然(III)無法實現(xiàn)learning to get together
    *教育不僅是為了讓學(xué)生學(xué)到知識技能,還要讓他們學(xué)會相處,也就是socialization的過程(這一點可以參考鬼谷子寫得上一個同主題,孩子社會化的主題)
    *每個學(xué)生如果只關(guān)心自己感興趣的,他們怎么能學(xué)到cooperate, leadership, teamwork, interpersonal skills.
    *這里可以捎帶講一下當(dāng)今社會cooperate等的重要性。(4)learning to be我的理解是學(xué)會做人,可以是指價值觀、人生觀的教育。僅僅根據(jù)學(xué)生的興趣來教育是無法指導(dǎo)他們做一個正直的人的。尤其是小學(xué)中學(xué)階段的教育,我認(rèn)為應(yīng)該包括moral education, 而大學(xué)生已經(jīng)有了自己判斷的能力,formal education 不應(yīng)該涉足其中。道德教育有很大的爭議,learning to be也可以有不同的解釋,這里有很大的靈活性,大家可以自己處理。
    Another question: 不同的教育階段是否應(yīng)該有不同的目的?
    I think so. 所以還有一種寫法就是把教育分階段來討論,primary and secondary education 和higher education 分開,論述不同階段的目的,評價用(III)這種方法是否好。對effective有兩種理解,我們上面討論的都是針對個人來說得,i.e.某種方法是否可以讓某個學(xué)生教育效果好,而不是從整體上來考慮。所以,另一個角度就是從整體出發(fā),從society, nation的高度,來衡量effectivenss. 我們不難想到這一點,因為我們國家就面臨著人口眾多、教育資源有限的問題。其一,對每個學(xué)生實現(xiàn)(III)是不可能的;其二,如果對一部分學(xué)生實現(xiàn)(III)是有礙社會公平的,而且整體的效果很難評估,很可能整體水平都下降了,盡管部分人能力很強(qiáng)。發(fā)達(dá)國家的教育也無法實現(xiàn)滿足每個人興趣和需要。這是另一種考慮的角度,從受教育者整體效果來衡量。
    2. Only
    *限定詞,排除了其他可能性,所以啟示我們,有沒有其他途徑來實現(xiàn)教育的目的。學(xué)生不感興趣的但是有用的知識技能是否要學(xué)呢?教育也要交給學(xué)生怎樣去生存,生存知識本領(lǐng)還是需要的,所以有些時候我們要用強(qiáng)制的手段。
    *其他的如cooperation, competition, teamwork, interpersonal skills都可以通過activity來學(xué)習(xí)。
    *另外,興趣有的時候不是innate的,我們可以啟發(fā)學(xué)生的興趣,指導(dǎo)他們進(jìn)入某一領(lǐng)域的學(xué)習(xí)。
    *當(dāng)教育是針對學(xué)生的特點來實施的時候是否有效呢?這就跟針對興趣來教育是不同的角度??鬃又鲝堃虿氖┙?,這是否比針對興趣來教育更好呢?
    3. specifically designed
    這一點在教育的四個目的中已經(jīng)討論過了,顯然教育只有(III)這一種方式途徑是不能達(dá)到全部目的的,所以specifically 導(dǎo)致了教育的片面。以上是我的觀點,可能我的立場傾向于反對題目,當(dāng)然,完全可以從贊成的角度來寫。如果是完全贊成,重點就要放在(III)是怎樣達(dá)到(II)的,也就是寫興趣的作用,從反面寫抹煞、忽視學(xué)生興趣的負(fù)面作用,現(xiàn)在教育中是否足夠重視針對學(xué)生興趣來教育。試想如果學(xué)生都接受同樣的教育,那就失去特點了;如果思想被管制,培養(yǎng)出來的是順民,不是有思想有判斷力的公民。這個角度發(fā)揮空間也是很大的。
    補(bǔ)充材料:
    教育的目的及其他
    具有自由精神的教育必是尊重個體差異并相信每個人都有發(fā)展?jié)撃艿慕逃?。每個人的資質(zhì)不同,發(fā)展的方向也會有所差異,如果你的孩子或?qū)W生可以成為一塊好鐵,為什么你一定要逼他去做一塊劣質(zhì)鋼呢?
    教育的目的
    教育應(yīng)該給人什么?教育的目的——不僅僅是大學(xué)教育,而是教育可以一以貫之的目的——是什么呢?如果說,教育的責(zé)任是培養(yǎng)人,隨之而來的問題是,我們的教育所追求的是培養(yǎng)什么樣的人?有多少人,經(jīng)過了小學(xué)、中學(xué)、大學(xué)甚至取得了更高的學(xué)位以后,在人生的旅途上仍茫然不知自己應(yīng)走向何方,不知在這茫茫宇宙間,人又是怎樣的一種存在。這些終極問題不是時隱時顯地叩問著我們的心靈么?
    在我看來,教育就是啟發(fā)每一個人對“我是誰?”“我從哪里來?”“要到哪里去?”的問題做出自己的回答,教育的目的就是啟發(fā)人不斷地去“認(rèn)識你自己”——古希臘巴特龍神廟的神諭,成為多少西方圣哲探討人生的起點。
    哲學(xué)、宗教、科學(xué)、藝術(shù)都在各自的領(lǐng)域探索著它的答案。而對于每一個人來說,這是人生的終極問題,逃避不了。
    教育的目的即在于培養(yǎng)自我認(rèn)識、自我塑造、自我負(fù)責(zé)并具有社會責(zé)任感的和諧發(fā)展的人。如果將孩子們比作衛(wèi)星,那么,成功的教育就如同運載火箭,讓孩子們在星箭分離后自主地在求知的軌道上運行。
    自由的精神
    教育與學(xué)術(shù)自由,教育不僅給老師以講授的學(xué)術(shù)自由,給學(xué)生以選擇的空間,更是對學(xué)生獨立思索與判斷能力的培養(yǎng)與信任,學(xué)校與教師相信學(xué)生可以通過獨立的思考,在盡可能多的思想交鋒中,了解認(rèn)識世界有多種視野,從而祛除偏狹的觀念,并終形成自己所認(rèn)同的觀點與信念。
    具有自由精神的教育必是尊重個體差異并相信每一個人都有發(fā)展?jié)撃艿慕逃?BR>    科技教育與人文精神
    文化、教育界探詢著融合人文與科學(xué)技術(shù)教育的途徑。如果說,這,我們是在為人文教育尋求價值的話,那么,回顧歷史,往昔的圖景很有意思,就在百年以前,人們還曾孜孜以求,為科學(xué)與技術(shù)教育正名,以求得與人文教育同等的地位。
    曾幾何時,人文精神曾被視為教育的靈魂,在古希臘的自由教育中,由貴族子弟與自由公民享用。這種教育被認(rèn)為與精神性、理性和高尚相關(guān)聯(lián),通過非功利的科目如音樂、哲學(xué)、文法、修辭等,訓(xùn)練學(xué)生完善身體和心靈,解放精神和思想;而接受職業(yè)與技術(shù)訓(xùn)練的是奴隸與工匠,他們的活動被視為物質(zhì)的與低級卑賤的。
    二十世紀(jì)頗具影響的美國哲學(xué)家與教育家杜威認(rèn)為這種區(qū)分阻礙了人道和自由的發(fā)展,故而畢生致力于打破這種反映在教育中的政治、經(jīng)濟(jì)的不平等及精神與物質(zhì)分裂的二元論。在他生活的年代,科學(xué)已在眾多領(lǐng)域取得進(jìn)展,而在文化、教育界,科學(xué)與技術(shù)教育仍然不能取得與人文學(xué)科同樣的地位。他提倡廣泛開展技術(shù)教育,在實驗學(xué)校里開設(shè)商店、車間,讓孩子們在做中學(xué),倡導(dǎo)從生活中學(xué)習(xí),將學(xué)校作為一個簡化的雛形社會,孩子們在這樣的環(huán)境中學(xué)習(xí)的一切,將有助于他(她)們自身的自由發(fā)展,成為能有效促進(jìn)民主的社會公民和能承擔(dān)責(zé)任的家庭成員。杜威的這些常被視為“標(biāo)新立異”的激烈反傳統(tǒng)思想與行為,實際上只是他試圖在學(xué)生學(xué)習(xí)的內(nèi)容與其社會生活之間建立聯(lián)系的一個嘗試,使學(xué)校不再是與生活隔離的場所,而學(xué)生所學(xué)習(xí)的不再是脫離人生的高高在上的內(nèi)容,藉此打破人文教育與科學(xué)技術(shù)教育的鴻溝,打破由這種區(qū)分帶來的不平等的階級之別。
    隨著二十世紀(jì)科學(xué)與技術(shù)的飛速發(fā)展,人們不必專門勞神為科技的重要性奔走呼吁了,人們在次科技革命帶來的新的世界里盡情享受著它帶來的福祉。但是,二十世紀(jì)兩次世界大戰(zhàn)的降臨打碎了人們的夢想。以科學(xué)技術(shù)為先導(dǎo)的武器成為屠戮生命的劊子手,原子彈的蘑菇云沖破了科學(xué)與倫理的屏障,科學(xué)領(lǐng)域還可以保持“倫理中立”的價值觀嗎?二十世紀(jì)的人們憂郁地意識到,科學(xué)技術(shù)是一把雙刃劍,它既可能掃除無知的愚昧和黑暗,為人們帶來前所未有的福祉;也可能刺破和諧,成為人類毀滅自身的工具。讓科學(xué)促進(jìn)生存與死亡,在于人類的選擇。學(xué)生——尤其是理工科學(xué)生——應(yīng)當(dāng)具有對于人類終極價值的關(guān)懷,而這種關(guān)懷正是人文精神所系。
    科技與人文的關(guān)系是什么呢?如果說,科技是一輛飛奔的汽車,那么,它將駛往何方,它的方向是助益人的幸福還是給人類帶來滅頂之災(zāi),則由人文關(guān)懷決定。
    現(xiàn)代似乎是一個需要為人文精神與教育尋求生存理由的時代,幸耶悲耶?
    那么,在科技教育中,如何融合人文精神呢?
    讓我們聽聽二十世紀(jì)有著傳奇色彩的大科學(xué)家愛因斯坦怎么想的吧。愛因斯坦在論教育的演講中表達(dá)了他的觀點:學(xué)校的目標(biāo)應(yīng)當(dāng)是培養(yǎng)和諧發(fā)展的人,而不是專家(《論教育》),技術(shù)學(xué)校的培養(yǎng)目標(biāo)亦當(dāng)如此。他反對學(xué)校直接教授那些在以后生活中直接用得到的專業(yè)知識和技能。在他看來,生活所要求的東西過多,學(xué)校不大可能采取這樣那樣的專門訓(xùn)練,何況單純的專業(yè)知識教育,只能使人成為有用的機(jī)器,不能成長為和諧發(fā)展的人。他認(rèn)為學(xué)校應(yīng)當(dāng)把發(fā)展學(xué)生獨立思考和獨立判斷的一般能力放在首位,需要使學(xué)生理解社會倫理準(zhǔn)則并對之產(chǎn)生熱烈的感情,需要養(yǎng)成對美和善的辨別力,同時還必須學(xué)習(xí)去了解人們的動機(jī)、幻想與疾苦,以此獲得與別人和集體的適當(dāng)關(guān)系。他認(rèn)為,這些價值觀主要不是通過教科書傳授給年輕一代,而是通過“人文學(xué)科”,通過同教育者親身接觸得來的。過分強(qiáng)調(diào)競爭制度,以及依據(jù)直接用途而過早專門化,會扼殺包括專業(yè)知識在內(nèi)的一切文化生活所依存的那種精神(《培養(yǎng)獨立思考的教育》)。他認(rèn)為,如果一個人掌握了他的學(xué)科的基礎(chǔ)理論,并且學(xué)會了獨立地思考和工作,他必定會找到他自己的道路,而且比起主要以獲得細(xì)節(jié)知識為其培訓(xùn)內(nèi)容的人來,他一定會更好地適應(yīng)進(jìn)步和變化。
    與專業(yè)科技知識及人文教育相關(guān)的另一個問題是,兩者是否必然為教育中對立的內(nèi)容呢?我以為,如果將人文精神的高境界視為對真善美的追求,那么,科學(xué)知識、科學(xué)精神與科學(xué)方法教育融匯而成的科學(xué)教育,正需要以人文精神為其價值內(nèi)核。人文與科技教育實可互為促進(jìn)。
    科學(xué)教育啟真。在諸多領(lǐng)域,強(qiáng)調(diào)“科學(xué)性”似乎已經(jīng)成為人們衡量其正確性的標(biāo)準(zhǔn)。人們似乎忘了,科學(xué)研究發(fā)現(xiàn)本身也許并非是終極真理,它們可能有所局限。對此,英國哲學(xué)家波普爾倡導(dǎo)用“證偽法”對科學(xué)發(fā)現(xiàn)加以檢驗,將所有科學(xué)定理、定律均視為暫時的假說,時刻等待著新的發(fā)現(xiàn)來否定它。這種開放的科學(xué)研究態(tài)度將疑問和批判視為科學(xué)的基本態(tài)度和基本精神。事實上,科學(xué)的許多偉大發(fā)現(xiàn)都建立在對某些被認(rèn)為是經(jīng)典結(jié)論的懷疑和檢驗中。在科學(xué)知識教學(xué)中,使學(xué)生了解探索科學(xué)的過程中一個不斷發(fā)現(xiàn)新的領(lǐng)域、原則的過程,了解理論是可錯的,從而對科學(xué)問題產(chǎn)生探究和質(zhì)疑的態(tài)度,甚至對偉大科學(xué)家的方案也不盲目崇拜,有可能為他們進(jìn)行新的探索奠定自由思考與開放視野的心理準(zhǔn)備。
    科學(xué)教育啟善??茖W(xué)的應(yīng)用不再是一個可以回避“善惡”的問題,戰(zhàn)爭中用攙雜了科技高含量的武器殺人是一個為極端的例子,而當(dāng)計算機(jī)病毒以“愛(love)”的名義來傳播時,科技帶來的陰影已成為當(dāng)代人心中抹不去的憂慮。也許我們可以說,科技帶來的問題——環(huán)境污染是另一個例子——只能用科技來解決,但科技本身不能回答解決的方向和價值取向,回答來自于對人文精神的關(guān)懷,甚至沖破以人為本的意義,而上升到對于整個地球上的一切生命的關(guān)懷——這是對“善”的尊崇。
    科學(xué)教育啟美。在學(xué)校教育中,科學(xué)一直是以嚴(yán)謹(jǐn)、抽象和純理性的形象出現(xiàn)的。而在許多科學(xué)家眼中,追求科學(xué)真理的過程,就是追求自然世界的簡潔性、對稱性與和諧性,也即追求美的過程。缺乏藝術(shù)的熏陶,缺乏詩人般的想象力和氣質(zhì),就不會成為獨創(chuàng)性的、第一流的大科學(xué)家。
    在科學(xué)教育中,通過對科學(xué)知識、科學(xué)精神、科學(xué)方法的教育的平衡,對教材作史論結(jié)合的改進(jìn),對各種促進(jìn)學(xué)生思維、情感發(fā)展的教學(xué)方法的應(yīng)用,我們才能有望造就將人類的幸福,將“真善美”的追求作為起點和終點的科技人才。因為科學(xué)之真、道德之善、藝術(shù)之美的理想原是不可分的“三位一體”,正如拉丁箴言所說的那樣:“簡單是真的標(biāo)志,美是真理的光輝?!倍啤斑m用于道德經(jīng)驗的東西,必然在更高的程度上也適用于美的現(xiàn)象?!保ㄏ眨?BR>    原版材料:
    THE MEANING OF EDUCATION
    Webster defines education as the process of educating or teaching (now that's really useful, isn't it?) Educate is further defined as "to develop the knowledge, skill, or character of..." Thus, from these definitions, we might assume that the purpose of education is to develop the knowledge, skill, or character of students. Unfortunately, this definition offers little unless we further define words such as develop, knowledge, and character.
    What is meant by knowledge? Is it a body of information that exists "out there"—apart from the human thought processes that developed it? If we look at the standards and benchmarks that have been developed by many states—or at E. D. Hirsch's list of information needed for Cultural Literacy (1), we might assume this to be the definition of knowledge. However, there is considerable research leading others to believe that knowledge arises in the mind of an individual when that person interacts with an idea or experience.
    This is hardly a new argument. In ancient Greece, Socrates argued that education was about drawing out what was already within the student. (As many of you know, the word education comes from the Latin e-ducere meaning "to lead out.") At the same time, the Sophists, a group of itinerant teachers, promised to give students the necessary knowledge and skills to gain positions with the city-state.
    There is a dangerous tendency to assume that when people use the same words, they perceive a situation in the same way. This is rarely the case. Once one gets beyond a dictionary definition—a meaning that is often of little practical value—the meaning we assign to a word is a belief, not an absolute fact. Here are a couple of examples.
    “The central task of education is to implant a will and facility for learning; it should produce not learned but learning people. The truly human society is a learning society, where grandparents, parents, and children are students together.” ~Eric Hoffer
    “No one has yet realized the wealth of sympathy, the kindness and generosity hidden in the soul of a child. The effort of every true education should be to unlock that treasure.” ~Emma Goldman
    “The only purpose of education is to teach a student how to live his life-by developing his mind and equipping him to deal with reality. The training he needs is theoretical, i.e., conceptual. He has to be taught to think, to understand, to integrate, to prove. He has to be taught the essentials of the knowledge discovered in the past-and he has to be equipped to acquire further knowledge by his own effort.” ~Ayn Rand
    “The aim of education should be to teach us rather how to think, than what to think—rather to improve our minds, so as to enable us to think for ourselves, than to load the memory with the thoughts of other men.” ~Bill Beattie
    “The one real object of education is to leave a man in the condition of continually asking questions.” ~Bishop Creighton
    “The central job of schools is to maximize the capacity of each student.” ~Carol Ann Tomlinson
    These quotations demonstrate the diversity of beliefs about the purpose of education. How would you complete the statement, "The purpose of education is..."? If you ask five of your fellow teachers to complete that sentence, it is likely that you'll have five different statements. Some will place the focus on knowledge, some on the teacher, and others on the student. Yet people's beliefs in the purpose of education lie at the heart of their teaching behaviors.
    Despite what the letter writer might have wished, there is no definition of education that is agreed upon by all, or even most, educators. The meanings they attach to the word are complex beliefs arising from their own values and experiences. To the extent that those beliefs differ, the experience of students in today's classrooms can never be the same. Worse, many educators have never been asked to state their beliefs—or even to reflect on what they believe. At the very least, teachers owe it to their students to bring their definitions into consciousness and examine them for validity.
    Purposes and Functions
    To make matters more complicated, theorists have made a distinction between the purpose of education and the functions of education.(2) A purpose is the fundamental goal of the process—an end to be achieved. Functions are other outcomes that may occur as a natural result of the process— byproducts or consequences of schooling. For example, some teachers believe that the transmission of knowledge is the primary purpose of education, while the transfer of knowledge from school to the real world is something that happens naturally as a consequence of possessing that knowledge—a function of education.
    Because a purpose is an expressed goal, more effort is put into attaining it. Functions are assumed to occur without directed effort. For this reason it's valuable to figure out which outcomes you consider a fundamental purpose of education. Which of the following do you actually include in your planning?
    As Tom Peters reminds us, "What gets measured, gets done." Regardless of the high sounding rhetoric about the development of the total child, it is the content of assessments that largely drives education. How is the capacity/ability to think creatively assessed in today's schools? To what extent is the typical student recognized and given respect? How often are students given the opportunity to recognize and evaluate different points of view when multiple choice tests require a single 'correct' answer?
    Teachers who hold a more humanistic view of the purpose of education often experience stress because the meaning they assign to education differs greatly from the meaning assigned by society or their institution. It is clear in listening to the language of education that its primary focus is on knowledge and teaching rather than on the learner. Students are expected to conform to schools rather than schools serving the needs of students.
    Stopping to identify and agree upon a fundamental purpose or purposes of education is rare. One sees nebulous statements in school mission statements, but they are often of the “Mom, baseball, and apple pie” variety that offer little substance on which to build a school culture. Creating meaningful and lasting change in education is unlikely without revisiting this basic definition. At the very least, educators must be challenged to identify and reexamine their beliefs in the light of present knowledge.
    It is time for the focus of education to shift from what's "out there—the curriculum, assessments, classroom arrangement, books, computers—to the fundamental assumptions about and definitions of education held by educators and policymakers. NASA did not send men to the moon by building on the chassis of a model T. In the same way, education cannot hope to move beyond its present state on the chassis of 18th century education.