TEXT B
Life Stories
At the end of the nineteenth century，a rising interest in Native American customs and an increasing desire to understand Native American culture prompted ethnologists to begin recording the life stories of Native American.Ethnologists had a distinct reason for wanting to hear the stories：they were after linguistic or anthropological data that would supplement their own field observations，and they believed that the personal stories，even of a single individual，could increase their understanding of the cultures that they had been observing from without.In addition， many ethnologists at the turn of the century believed that Native American manners and customs were rapidly disappearing，and that it was important to preserve for posterity as much information as could be adequately recorded before the cultures disappeared forever.
There were，however，arguments against this method as a way of acquiring accurate and complete information.Franz Boas，for example，described autobiographies as being “of limited value，and useful chiefly for the study of the perversion of truth by memory，”while Paul Radin contended that investigators rarely spent enough time with the tribes they were observing，and inevitably derived results too tinged by the investigator's own emotional tone to be reliable.
Even more importantly，as these life stories moved from the traditional oral mode to recorded written form，much was inevitably lost.Editors often decided what elements were significant to the field research on a given tribe.Native Americans recognized that the essence of their lives could not be communicated in English and that events that they thought significant were often deemed unimportant by their interviewers.Indeed，the very act of telling their stories could force Native American narrators to distort their cultures，as taboos had to be broken to speak the names of dead relatives crucial to their family stories.
Despite all of this，autobiography remains a useful tool for ethnological research：such personal reminiscences and impressions，incomplete as they may be，are likely to throw more light on the working of the mind and emotions than any amount of speculation from an ethnologist or ethnological theorist from another culture.
18.The author writes the passage to____ .
A.correct a misconception B.question an explanation
C.clarify an ambiguity D.critique a methodology
19.According to this passage，which of the following can affect the accuracy of ethnologists' transcriptions of life stories？
A.The length of time the researchers spent in the culture under study.
B.The verifiability of the information provided by the research informants.
C.The number of life stories collected by the researchers.
D.The informants' social standing within the culture.
TEXT C
Three Groups of Consumers
It can be argued that much consumer dissatisfaction with marketing strategies arises from an inability to aim advertising at only the likely buyers of a given product.There are three groups of consumers who are affected by the marketing process.First，there is the market segment-people who need the commodity in question.Second，there is the program target-people in the market segment with the “best fit” characteristics for a specific product.Lots of people may need trousers，but only a few quality as likely buyers of very expensive designer trousers.Finally，there is the program audience—all people who are actually exposed to the marketing program without regard to whether they need or want the product.
These three groups are rarely identical.An exception occurs occasionally in cases where customers for a particular industrial product may be few and easily identifiable.Such customers，all sharing a particular need，are likely to form a meaningful target，for example，all companies with a particular application of the product in question，such as high-speed fillers of bottles at breweries.In such circumstances，direct selling （marketing that reaches only the program target） is likely to be economically justified，and highly specialized trade media exist to expose members of the program target—and only members of the program target—to the marketing program.
Most consumer-goods markets are significantly different.Typically，there are many rather than few potential customers.Each represents a relatively small percentage of potential sales.Rarely do members of a particular market segment group themselves neatly into a meaningful program target.There are substantial differences among consumers with similar demographic characteristics.Even with all the past decade's advances in information technology，direct selling of consumer goods is rare，and mass marketing—a marketing approach that aims at a wide audience—remains the only economically feasible mode.Unfortunately，there are few media that allow the marketer to direct a marketing program exclusively to the program target.Inevitably，people get exposed to a great deal of marketing for products in which they have no interest and so they become annoyed.
20.The passage suggests which of the following about highly specialized trade media？
A.They are used only for very expensive products.
B.They should be used only when direct selling is not economically feasible.
C.They can be used to exclude from the program audience people who are not part of the program target.
D.They are used only when direct selling has not reached the appropriate market segment.
21.Which of the following best exemplifies the situation described in the last two sentences of the passage？
A.A product suitable for men aged 60 and over is advertised in a magazine read by adults of all ages.
B.A product suitable for women aged 21-30 is marketed at meetings attended only by potential customers.
C.A new product is developed and marketers collect demographic data on potential consumers before developing a specific advertising campaign.
D.A company develops a new product and must develop an advertising campaign to creat a market for it.
22.It can be inferred from the passage that which of the following is true for most consumer-goods markets？
A.The program audience is smaller than the market segment.
B.The program target is larger than the market segment.
C.The market segment and the program target are usually identical.
D.The program target and the program audience are not usually identical.