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【篇一】
Plate Tectonics and Sea-floor Spreading
The theory of plate tectonics describes the motions of the lithosphere, the comparatively rigid outer layer of the Earth that includes all the crust and part of the underlying mantle. The lithosphere is divided into a few dozen plates of various sizes and shapes, in general the plates are in motion with respect to one another. A mid-ocean ridge is a boundary between plates where new lithospheric material is injected from below. As the plates diverge from a mid-ocean ridge they slide on a more yielding layer at the base of the lithosphere.Since the size of the Earth is essentially constant, new lithosphere can be created at the mid-ocean ridges only if an equal amount of lithospheric material is consumed elsewhere. The site of this destruction is another kind of plate boundary: a subduction zone. There one plate dives under the edge of another and is reincorporated into the mantle. Both kinds of plate boundary are associated with fault systems, earthquakes and volcanism, but the kinds of geologic activity observed at the two boundaries are quite different.
The idea of sea-floor spreading actually preceded the theory of plate tectonics. In its original version, in the early 1960’s, it described the creation and destruction of the ocean floor, but it did not specify rigid lithospheric plates. The hypothesis was substantiated soon afterward by the discovery that periodic reversals of the Earth’s magnetic field are recorded in the oceanic crust. As magma rises under the mid-ocean ridge, ferromagnetic minerals in the magma become magnetized in the direction of the geomagnetic field. When the magma cools and solidifies, the direction and the polarity of the field are preserved in the magnetized volcanic rock. Reversals of the field give rise to a series of magnetic stripes running parallel to the axis of the rift. The oceanic crust thus serves as a magnetic tape recording of the history of the geomagnetic field that can be dated independently; the width of the stripes indicates the rate of the sea-floor spreading.
【篇二】譯文
板塊結(jié)構(gòu)與海床擴(kuò)展
板塊結(jié)構(gòu)理論描述巖石圈的運(yùn)動。巖石圈是相對堅(jiān)硬的地球外層，包括全部地殼和部分地幔。巖石圈被劃分為幾十個(gè)大小不同形狀各異的板塊，一般而言這些板塊都處于相對運(yùn)動之中。一道中海脊是板塊之間的邊界，在那里新的巖石圈的物質(zhì)從下部注入。當(dāng)板塊從中海脊脫離時(shí)，它們滑向在巖石圈基部較易變形的地層上。因?yàn)榈厍虻拇笮”举|(zhì)上是不變的，只有同等數(shù)量的巖石圈物質(zhì)在其它地方被吞沒，新的巖石圈才能生成。銷毀舊巖石圈的地方形成另外一種板塊邊界：一塊潛沒的區(qū)域。在這里，一塊板塊潛沒到另一板塊的邊緣之下并結(jié)合入地幔之中。兩種板塊邊界均與地層系統(tǒng)、地震以及火山活動有關(guān)，但在兩種邊界處觀察到的諸般地質(zhì)活動卻迥然不同。
海床擴(kuò)展說實(shí)際上早于板塊結(jié)構(gòu)理論。在20世紀(jì)60年代它的理論雛形中，描述了海底的生成和毀滅，但沒有詳細(xì)介紹堅(jiān)硬的巖石圈板塊。這個(gè)假定不久之后為發(fā)現(xiàn)所證實(shí)。該發(fā)現(xiàn)表明地球磁場周期性的逆轉(zhuǎn)被記錄在海洋地殼中。當(dāng)巖漿從中海脊下涌起的時(shí)候，巖漿中的磁鐵礦物質(zhì)按地磁場的方向被磁化。巖漿冷卻并凝固下來后，地磁場的方向和磁極被保留在磁化了的火山巖中。磁場的逆轉(zhuǎn)形成一系列與斷層軸線平行的條形磁區(qū)。這樣海洋殼就扮演了磁帶的角色，記錄下可以鑒定時(shí)間的地磁場的歷史。條形磁區(qū)的寬度表明了海底擴(kuò)展的速度。
【篇三】
Oil Refining
An important new industry, oil refining, grew after the Civil war. Crude oil, or petroleum – a dark, thick ooze from the earth – had been known for hundreds of years, but little use had ever been made of it.
In the 1850's Samuel M. Kier, a manufacturer in western Pennsylvania, began collecting the oil from local seepages and refining it into kerosene. Refining, like smelting, is a process of removing impurities from a raw material.Kerosene was used to light lamps. It was a cheap substitute for whale oil, which was becoming harder to get. Soon there was a large demand for kerosene. People began to search for new supplies of petroleum.
The first oil well was drilled by E.L. Drake, a retired railroad conductor. In 1859 he began drilling in Titusville, Pennsylvania. The whole venture seemed so impractical and foolish that onlookers called it "Drake's Folly". But when he had drilled down about 70 feet (21 meters), Drake struck oil. His well began to yield 20 barrels of crude oil a day.News of Drake's success brought oil prospectors to the scene.By the early 1860’s these wildcatters were drilling for "black gold" all over western Pennsylvania. The boom rivaled the California gold rush of 1848 in its excitement and Wild West atmosphere. And it brought far more wealth to the prospectors than any gold rush.
Crude oil could be refined into many products. For some years kerosene continued to be the principal one. It was sold in grocery stores and door-to-door. In the 1880's refiners learned how to make other petroleum products such as waxes and lubricating oils. Petroleum was not then used to make gasoline or heating oil.
【篇四】譯文
煉油
一種重要的新興工業(yè)——煉油業(yè)在國內(nèi)戰(zhàn)爭后成長起來。未加工的石油，或原油——一種深色的地下的稠漿——數(shù)百年來一直為大眾所知，但是人們卻很少使用過它。
在十九世紀(jì)五十年代，薩繆爾·M·科爾，賓西法尼亞西部的一位制造商，開始從當(dāng)?shù)氐囊绯鑫镏惺占筒⑺鼰挸擅河汀Ｅc冶煉礦石一樣，石油提煉是一個(gè)從未加工的原料中除去雜質(zhì)的過程。煤油被用來點(diǎn)燈。它是鯨油的一種便宜的替代品，而鯨油正變得越來越難以獲得。不久就產(chǎn)生了對煤油的大量需求。人們開始尋找新的石油供應(yīng)。
第一口油井為E·L·瑞克，一個(gè)退休的火車檢票員所鉆得。1859年他開始在賓西法尼亞的泰特斯維爾鉆井。整個(gè)的這項(xiàng)冒險(xiǎn)事業(yè)看起來是如此不現(xiàn)實(shí)和愚蠢以致旁觀者稱之為“鴨子的蠢行”。（譯者注：Drake's Folly，drake在這里意含雙關(guān)，即指瑞克的名字，又指該詞的本義即鴨子。）但當(dāng)瑞克往下鉆至70英尺（21米）的時(shí)候，他發(fā)現(xiàn)了石油。他的油井從此每天生產(chǎn)20桶原油。瑞克成功的消息將石油勘探者們吸引到現(xiàn)場。截止到19世紀(jì)60年代早期，這些冒險(xiǎn)者為尋找“黑色的金子”鉆探遍了整個(gè)賓西法尼亞西部。這項(xiàng)繁榮的事業(yè)在刺激性和粗獷的西部氣氛上可與1848年的加州淘金熱相媲美，而且它為勘探者帶來了遠(yuǎn)超過淘金潮的財(cái)富。
原油能被提煉成許多產(chǎn)品。多年以來煤油一直是主要的一種產(chǎn)品。它在雜貨店中出售由人挨戶推銷。十九世紀(jì)八十年代煉油者們懂得了生產(chǎn)其它石油產(chǎn)品，如蠟和潤滑油。那時(shí)石油還沒有被用來制造汽油或采暖裝置用油。