12月13日托福閱讀詞匯題：
Obviously=clearly
Widespread=common
Dense=thick
Thus=consequently
resultant
Shallow=small
depth
exercise
Profound=very strong
Emergence=rise
Tactic=strategy
Adjacent to=near to
Parallel=match
12月13日托福閱讀第一篇
題材劃分： 生物類
主要內(nèi)容：板塊運(yùn)動(dòng)可以改變生物多樣性，提到生物區(qū)的劃分，少于百分之二十的物種相似度就是不同的區(qū)越多說明那里的多樣性越高。比如板塊分開的時(shí)候，多樣性增加，反之亦然。一個(gè)山脈可以把原本的濕潤風(fēng)給擋了，就變成沙漠不適合生長了。或者一個(gè)障礙的形成可以把本來的一個(gè)物種分成兩個(gè)，一南一北，等到在合并的時(shí)候，發(fā)現(xiàn)北部的可以到南部生活，但南部的很少到北部生活。
相似TPO練習(xí)推薦
TPO31- Speciation in Geographically Isolated Populations
相關(guān)背景知識(shí)：
Speciation is the evolutionary process by which new biological species arise. The biologist Orator F. Cook was the first to coin the term 'speciation' for the splitting of lineages or "cladogenesis," as opposed to "anagenesis" or "phyletic evolution" occurring within lineages. Charles Darwin was the first to describe the role of natural selection in speciation.There is research comparing the intensity of sexual selection in different clades with their number of species.
There are four geographic modes of speciation in nature, based on the extent to which speciating populations are isolated from one another: allopatric, peripatric, parapatric, and sympatric. Speciation may also be induced artificially, through animal husbandry, agriculture, or laboratory experiments. Whether genetic drift is a minor or major contributor to speciation is the subject matter of much ongoing discussion.
All forms of natural speciation have taken place over the course of evolution; however, debate persists as to the relative importance of each mechanism in driving biodiversity.
One example of natural speciation is the diversity of the three-spined stickleback, a marine fish that, after the last glacial period, has undergone speciation into new freshwater colonies in isolated lakes and streams. Over an estimated 10,000 generations, the sticklebacks show structural differences that are greater than those seen between different genera of fish including variations in fins, changes in the number or size of their bony plates, variable jaw structure, and color differences.
During allopatric speciation, a population splits into two geographically isolated populations (for example, by habitat fragmentation due to geographical change such as mountain formation). The isolated populations then undergo genotypic and/or phenotypic divergence as: (a) they become subjected to dissimilar selective pressures; (b) they independently undergo genetic drift; (c) different mutations arise in the two populations. When the populations come back into contact, they have evolved such that they are reproductively isolated and are no longer capable of exchanging genes. Island genetics is the term associated with the tendency of small, isolated genetic pools to produce unusual traits. Examples include insular dwarfism and the radical changes among certain famous island chains, for example on Komodo. The Galápagos Islands are particularly famous for their influence on Charles Darwin. During his five weeks there he heard that Galápagos tortoises could be identified by island, and noticed that finches differed from one island to another, but it was only nine months later that he reflected that such facts could show that species were changeable. When he returned to England, his speculation on evolution deepened after experts informed him that these were separate species, not just varieties, and famously that other differing Galápagos birds were all species of finches. Though the finches were less important for Darwin, more recent research has shown the birds now known as Darwin's finches to be a classic case of adaptive evolutionary radiation.
12月13日托福閱讀第二篇
題材劃分： 生物類
主要內(nèi)容： 主要講關(guān)于夏威夷島上的Noendemic animals and plants是如何移民到島上的，主要通過風(fēng)，動(dòng)物皮毛和消化，以及通過人類的船只等。植物方面，蕨類植物的種子使得它們很容易被傳播，有果實(shí)的植物比干種子植物更容易傳播，因?yàn)閯?dòng)物會(huì)被吸引來吃它們，還有一種植物在傳播過來后進(jìn)化成另一種植物，進(jìn)化后的植物的種子不能傳播。動(dòng)物方面昆蟲來的少不是因?yàn)橄耐沫h(huán)境不行而是它們沒機(jī)會(huì)到達(dá)島上，并且舉了螞蟻的例子。
相似TPO練習(xí)推薦：
TPO9- The Arrival of Plant Life in Hawaii
相關(guān)知識(shí)背景：
Plant populations are governed by two major controlling forces. The population expansion favoring force, positive force, is the sexual reproductive dispersal of the forest population. The population expansion limiting force, negative force, is the suppression by the environment of seed and plant success in an area. These two major forces compete and change through time causing advances and retreats in the borders of plant populations' regions. An advance in the range border of the forest population occurs when environmental suppressive forces are below the population's dispersal potential, thus allowing for seedling success outside the current range. Range border contractions occur when environmental suppressive forces increase to a point where seedling success is limited in the current range, thus no successive generation is established to replace the individuals within a portion of the current range through time. Though dispersal and environmental suppressive forces continually act, a static range boundary may occur when there is no change in the rate of these two factors.
There has been debate over how plant populations move under rapid climate change situations. This debate stems from an issue called "Reid's paradox of rapid plant migration". After the last glacial period, tree species spread to recover the newly exposed land. Through studies, it was calculated that this expansion occurred faster than perceived possible. The two explanations for this rapid movement of forest populations across the landscape that came to the forefront were the retention of low-density founder populations and long distance migration.
In this theory, small forest populations were retained within the affected region of the last glacial period. The repopulation of this region, after the recession the glaciers, manifested as a relatively slow expansion outward of these retained populations. The expansion was mostly due to diffusion in a normal distribution from the reproductive core. The expansion of these populations was then dictated by the dispersal ability of the population. Through this process, waves of short distance expansion were seen over time as seeds dispersed, grew, matured, and set seed themselves. High rates of spread, similar to those obtained under the long distance migration assumption, have been obtained with diffusion models incorporating low-density founder populations.
Range limits of many plant species are expected to shift dramatically if climatic warming, driven by the release of greenhouse gases, occurs in the next century. The ability of species to migrate in response to the range shifts has been questioned, especially in the context of extensive habitat fragmentation which occurs in modern-day landscapes. Simulation models are presented which incorporate two factors, land use pattern and means of dispersal, to assess potential responses of forest species to climatic warming. Study areas displayed a range of human influence on the landscape, from heavily forested areas to areas dominated by urbanization and agriculture. The effect of establishing corridors (greenways) through fragmented landscapes is also assessed.
Results indicate that many species may be unable to track shifts in climatically-controlled range limits, resulting in widespread disequilibrium between vegetation and climate. A variety of mitigating options likely will be necessary to offset the negative consequences of climatic warming on biological diversity. Land use planners and managers are encouraged to incorporate climate warming into long-term planning.
12月13日托福閱讀第三篇
題材劃分：社會(huì)發(fā)展類
主要內(nèi)容：18世紀(jì)歐洲報(bào)紙的發(fā)展得益于人們對(duì)于信息的需求增加，以商人為例，post的發(fā)展為報(bào)紙?zhí)峁┝藗鞑デ馈：商m的報(bào)紙法國也能督導(dǎo)，有提到最重要的國家-英國的作用。細(xì)節(jié)方面有，最早的報(bào)紙?jiān)诤商m，游歐洲政府控制報(bào)紙的發(fā)行權(quán)，利用它們宣傳自己的政策。報(bào)紙很重要但也沒那么重要等。最后一段說報(bào)紙的好處，讓人們更容易消化實(shí)事，因?yàn)橐恢茏疃喟l(fā)行兩次，報(bào)紙得益于印刷術(shù)。報(bào)紙只有四版，并且很少描述，新聞沒有標(biāo)題，人們跟周圍的世界簡(jiǎn)歷練習(xí)，報(bào)紙上有廣告，為版商提供收益以及給人們提供就業(yè)信息，人們可以給編輯寄信表明自己的觀點(diǎn)。
相似TPO練習(xí)推薦：
TPO-30 The Invention of the Mechanical Clock
相關(guān)知識(shí)背景：
A newspaper is a serial publication containing news, other informative articles (listed below), and usually advertising. A newspaper is usually printed on relatively inexpensive, low-grade paper such as newsprint. The news organizations that publish newspapers are themselves often metonymically called newspapers. Most newspapers are now published online as well as in print. The online versions are called online newspapers or news sites. Newspapers are typically published daily or weekly. News magazines are also weekly, but they have a magazine format.
General-interest newspapers typically publish news articles and feature articles on national and international news as well as local news. The news includes political events and personalities, business and finance, crime, severe weather, and natural disasters; health and medicine, science, and technology; sports; and entertainment, society, food and cooking, clothing and home fashion, and the arts. Typically the paper is divided into sections for each of those major groupings (labeled A, B, C, and so on, with pagination prefixes yielding page numbers A1-A20, B1-B20, C1-C20, and so on). Most traditional papers also feature an editorial page containing editorials written by an editor, op-eds written by guest writers, and columns that express the personal opinions of columnists, usually offering analysis and synthesis that attempts to translate the raw data of the news into information telling the reader "what it all means" and persuading them to concur.
A wide variety of material has been published in newspapers. Besides the aforementioned news and opinions, they include weather forecasts; criticism and reviews of the arts (including literature, film, television, theater, fine arts, and architecture) and of local services such as restaurants; obituaries; entertainment features such as crosswords, horoscopes, editorial cartoons, gag cartoons, and comic strips; advice, food, and other columns; and radio and television listings (program schedules).
Most newspapers are businesses, and they pay their expenses (such as journalists' wages, printing costs, and distribution costs) with a mixture of subscription revenue, newsstand sales, and advertising revenue (other businesses or individuals pay to place advertisements in the pages, including display ads, classified ads, and their online equivalents). Some newspapers are government-run or at least government-funded; their reliance on advertising revenue and on profitability is less critical to their survival. The editorial independence of a newspaper is thus always subject to the interests of someone, whether owners, advertisers, or a government. Some newspapers with high editorial independence, high journalism quality, and large circulation are viewed as newspapers of record.
Many newspapers, besides employing journalists on their own payrolls, also subscribe to news agencies (wire services) (such as the Associated Press, Reuters, or Agence France-Presse), which employ journalists to find, assemble, and report the news, then sell the content to the various newspapers. This is a way to avoid duplicating the expense of reporting. Circa 2005, there were approximately 6,580 daily newspaper titles in the world selling 395 million print copies a day (in the U.S., 1,450 titles selling 55 million copies).[4] The late 2000s–early 2010s global recession, combined with the rapid growth of free web-based alternatives, has helped cause a decline in advertising and circulation, as many papers had to retrench operations to increase profitability.[5] The decline in advertising revenues affected both the print and online media as well as all other mediums; print advertising was once lucrative but has greatly declined, and the prices of online advertising are often lower than those of their print precursors. Besides remodeling advertising, the internet (especially the web) has also challenged the business models of the print-only era by democratizing and crowdsourcing both publishing in general (sharing information with others) and, more specifically, journalism (the work of finding, assembling, and reporting the news). In addition, the rise of news aggregators, which bundle linked articles from many online newspapers and other sources, influences the flow of web traffic. Increasing paywalling of online newspapers may be counteracting those effects.
Obviously=clearly
Widespread=common
Dense=thick
Thus=consequently
resultant
Shallow=small
depth
exercise
Profound=very strong
Emergence=rise
Tactic=strategy
Adjacent to=near to
Parallel=match
12月13日托福閱讀第一篇
題材劃分： 生物類
主要內(nèi)容：板塊運(yùn)動(dòng)可以改變生物多樣性，提到生物區(qū)的劃分，少于百分之二十的物種相似度就是不同的區(qū)越多說明那里的多樣性越高。比如板塊分開的時(shí)候，多樣性增加，反之亦然。一個(gè)山脈可以把原本的濕潤風(fēng)給擋了，就變成沙漠不適合生長了。或者一個(gè)障礙的形成可以把本來的一個(gè)物種分成兩個(gè)，一南一北，等到在合并的時(shí)候，發(fā)現(xiàn)北部的可以到南部生活，但南部的很少到北部生活。
相似TPO練習(xí)推薦
TPO31- Speciation in Geographically Isolated Populations
相關(guān)背景知識(shí)：
Speciation is the evolutionary process by which new biological species arise. The biologist Orator F. Cook was the first to coin the term 'speciation' for the splitting of lineages or "cladogenesis," as opposed to "anagenesis" or "phyletic evolution" occurring within lineages. Charles Darwin was the first to describe the role of natural selection in speciation.There is research comparing the intensity of sexual selection in different clades with their number of species.
There are four geographic modes of speciation in nature, based on the extent to which speciating populations are isolated from one another: allopatric, peripatric, parapatric, and sympatric. Speciation may also be induced artificially, through animal husbandry, agriculture, or laboratory experiments. Whether genetic drift is a minor or major contributor to speciation is the subject matter of much ongoing discussion.
All forms of natural speciation have taken place over the course of evolution; however, debate persists as to the relative importance of each mechanism in driving biodiversity.
One example of natural speciation is the diversity of the three-spined stickleback, a marine fish that, after the last glacial period, has undergone speciation into new freshwater colonies in isolated lakes and streams. Over an estimated 10,000 generations, the sticklebacks show structural differences that are greater than those seen between different genera of fish including variations in fins, changes in the number or size of their bony plates, variable jaw structure, and color differences.
During allopatric speciation, a population splits into two geographically isolated populations (for example, by habitat fragmentation due to geographical change such as mountain formation). The isolated populations then undergo genotypic and/or phenotypic divergence as: (a) they become subjected to dissimilar selective pressures; (b) they independently undergo genetic drift; (c) different mutations arise in the two populations. When the populations come back into contact, they have evolved such that they are reproductively isolated and are no longer capable of exchanging genes. Island genetics is the term associated with the tendency of small, isolated genetic pools to produce unusual traits. Examples include insular dwarfism and the radical changes among certain famous island chains, for example on Komodo. The Galápagos Islands are particularly famous for their influence on Charles Darwin. During his five weeks there he heard that Galápagos tortoises could be identified by island, and noticed that finches differed from one island to another, but it was only nine months later that he reflected that such facts could show that species were changeable. When he returned to England, his speculation on evolution deepened after experts informed him that these were separate species, not just varieties, and famously that other differing Galápagos birds were all species of finches. Though the finches were less important for Darwin, more recent research has shown the birds now known as Darwin's finches to be a classic case of adaptive evolutionary radiation.
12月13日托福閱讀第二篇
題材劃分： 生物類
主要內(nèi)容： 主要講關(guān)于夏威夷島上的Noendemic animals and plants是如何移民到島上的，主要通過風(fēng)，動(dòng)物皮毛和消化，以及通過人類的船只等。植物方面，蕨類植物的種子使得它們很容易被傳播，有果實(shí)的植物比干種子植物更容易傳播，因?yàn)閯?dòng)物會(huì)被吸引來吃它們，還有一種植物在傳播過來后進(jìn)化成另一種植物，進(jìn)化后的植物的種子不能傳播。動(dòng)物方面昆蟲來的少不是因?yàn)橄耐沫h(huán)境不行而是它們沒機(jī)會(huì)到達(dá)島上，并且舉了螞蟻的例子。
相似TPO練習(xí)推薦：
TPO9- The Arrival of Plant Life in Hawaii
相關(guān)知識(shí)背景：
Plant populations are governed by two major controlling forces. The population expansion favoring force, positive force, is the sexual reproductive dispersal of the forest population. The population expansion limiting force, negative force, is the suppression by the environment of seed and plant success in an area. These two major forces compete and change through time causing advances and retreats in the borders of plant populations' regions. An advance in the range border of the forest population occurs when environmental suppressive forces are below the population's dispersal potential, thus allowing for seedling success outside the current range. Range border contractions occur when environmental suppressive forces increase to a point where seedling success is limited in the current range, thus no successive generation is established to replace the individuals within a portion of the current range through time. Though dispersal and environmental suppressive forces continually act, a static range boundary may occur when there is no change in the rate of these two factors.
There has been debate over how plant populations move under rapid climate change situations. This debate stems from an issue called "Reid's paradox of rapid plant migration". After the last glacial period, tree species spread to recover the newly exposed land. Through studies, it was calculated that this expansion occurred faster than perceived possible. The two explanations for this rapid movement of forest populations across the landscape that came to the forefront were the retention of low-density founder populations and long distance migration.
In this theory, small forest populations were retained within the affected region of the last glacial period. The repopulation of this region, after the recession the glaciers, manifested as a relatively slow expansion outward of these retained populations. The expansion was mostly due to diffusion in a normal distribution from the reproductive core. The expansion of these populations was then dictated by the dispersal ability of the population. Through this process, waves of short distance expansion were seen over time as seeds dispersed, grew, matured, and set seed themselves. High rates of spread, similar to those obtained under the long distance migration assumption, have been obtained with diffusion models incorporating low-density founder populations.
Range limits of many plant species are expected to shift dramatically if climatic warming, driven by the release of greenhouse gases, occurs in the next century. The ability of species to migrate in response to the range shifts has been questioned, especially in the context of extensive habitat fragmentation which occurs in modern-day landscapes. Simulation models are presented which incorporate two factors, land use pattern and means of dispersal, to assess potential responses of forest species to climatic warming. Study areas displayed a range of human influence on the landscape, from heavily forested areas to areas dominated by urbanization and agriculture. The effect of establishing corridors (greenways) through fragmented landscapes is also assessed.
Results indicate that many species may be unable to track shifts in climatically-controlled range limits, resulting in widespread disequilibrium between vegetation and climate. A variety of mitigating options likely will be necessary to offset the negative consequences of climatic warming on biological diversity. Land use planners and managers are encouraged to incorporate climate warming into long-term planning.
12月13日托福閱讀第三篇
題材劃分：社會(huì)發(fā)展類
主要內(nèi)容：18世紀(jì)歐洲報(bào)紙的發(fā)展得益于人們對(duì)于信息的需求增加，以商人為例，post的發(fā)展為報(bào)紙?zhí)峁┝藗鞑デ馈：商m的報(bào)紙法國也能督導(dǎo)，有提到最重要的國家-英國的作用。細(xì)節(jié)方面有，最早的報(bào)紙?jiān)诤商m，游歐洲政府控制報(bào)紙的發(fā)行權(quán)，利用它們宣傳自己的政策。報(bào)紙很重要但也沒那么重要等。最后一段說報(bào)紙的好處，讓人們更容易消化實(shí)事，因?yàn)橐恢茏疃喟l(fā)行兩次，報(bào)紙得益于印刷術(shù)。報(bào)紙只有四版，并且很少描述，新聞沒有標(biāo)題，人們跟周圍的世界簡(jiǎn)歷練習(xí)，報(bào)紙上有廣告，為版商提供收益以及給人們提供就業(yè)信息，人們可以給編輯寄信表明自己的觀點(diǎn)。
相似TPO練習(xí)推薦：
TPO-30 The Invention of the Mechanical Clock
相關(guān)知識(shí)背景：
A newspaper is a serial publication containing news, other informative articles (listed below), and usually advertising. A newspaper is usually printed on relatively inexpensive, low-grade paper such as newsprint. The news organizations that publish newspapers are themselves often metonymically called newspapers. Most newspapers are now published online as well as in print. The online versions are called online newspapers or news sites. Newspapers are typically published daily or weekly. News magazines are also weekly, but they have a magazine format.
General-interest newspapers typically publish news articles and feature articles on national and international news as well as local news. The news includes political events and personalities, business and finance, crime, severe weather, and natural disasters; health and medicine, science, and technology; sports; and entertainment, society, food and cooking, clothing and home fashion, and the arts. Typically the paper is divided into sections for each of those major groupings (labeled A, B, C, and so on, with pagination prefixes yielding page numbers A1-A20, B1-B20, C1-C20, and so on). Most traditional papers also feature an editorial page containing editorials written by an editor, op-eds written by guest writers, and columns that express the personal opinions of columnists, usually offering analysis and synthesis that attempts to translate the raw data of the news into information telling the reader "what it all means" and persuading them to concur.
A wide variety of material has been published in newspapers. Besides the aforementioned news and opinions, they include weather forecasts; criticism and reviews of the arts (including literature, film, television, theater, fine arts, and architecture) and of local services such as restaurants; obituaries; entertainment features such as crosswords, horoscopes, editorial cartoons, gag cartoons, and comic strips; advice, food, and other columns; and radio and television listings (program schedules).
Most newspapers are businesses, and they pay their expenses (such as journalists' wages, printing costs, and distribution costs) with a mixture of subscription revenue, newsstand sales, and advertising revenue (other businesses or individuals pay to place advertisements in the pages, including display ads, classified ads, and their online equivalents). Some newspapers are government-run or at least government-funded; their reliance on advertising revenue and on profitability is less critical to their survival. The editorial independence of a newspaper is thus always subject to the interests of someone, whether owners, advertisers, or a government. Some newspapers with high editorial independence, high journalism quality, and large circulation are viewed as newspapers of record.
Many newspapers, besides employing journalists on their own payrolls, also subscribe to news agencies (wire services) (such as the Associated Press, Reuters, or Agence France-Presse), which employ journalists to find, assemble, and report the news, then sell the content to the various newspapers. This is a way to avoid duplicating the expense of reporting. Circa 2005, there were approximately 6,580 daily newspaper titles in the world selling 395 million print copies a day (in the U.S., 1,450 titles selling 55 million copies).[4] The late 2000s–early 2010s global recession, combined with the rapid growth of free web-based alternatives, has helped cause a decline in advertising and circulation, as many papers had to retrench operations to increase profitability.[5] The decline in advertising revenues affected both the print and online media as well as all other mediums; print advertising was once lucrative but has greatly declined, and the prices of online advertising are often lower than those of their print precursors. Besides remodeling advertising, the internet (especially the web) has also challenged the business models of the print-only era by democratizing and crowdsourcing both publishing in general (sharing information with others) and, more specifically, journalism (the work of finding, assembling, and reporting the news). In addition, the rise of news aggregators, which bundle linked articles from many online newspapers and other sources, influences the flow of web traffic. Increasing paywalling of online newspapers may be counteracting those effects.