12月12日托福閱讀詞匯題匯總：
master=skillfully
at solving problem
hierarchy=ranking
rudimentary=simple
to a degree=to some extent
initiate=introduce
exceptional=extraordinary
install=put in place
valid=well founded
lost favor=does not preferred
master
duration=length
12月12日托福閱讀第一篇
題材劃分： 生命科學
主要內(nèi)容：講learning standard test set，就是如何測試不同種類動物的intelligence。
不同物種的智商不一樣。人們很想知道動物的智商和人類有什么不同，遇事通過動物學習能力來檢測。
前三段都是講的這個test是怎么操作的。最先舉的例子好像是猴子和什么，做的對比實驗。第一次讓它從三角形和長方形里選，選三角形就給獎勵，選正方形就不給;第二次從圓形和多邊形里選，依舊是選圓形給獎勵，選擇多邊形不給。后面不斷變化通過大量實驗來看這種動物的improvements，就比如這種動物在進行第幾十次測試時正確率增加了多少。一種猴子經(jīng)過了三十次測試正確率就達到百分之九十了，然后這個測試的結果表明智商高的動物大腦也大。于是大家都覺得可以參考。
后面三段都在反駁這個方法不可取。又舉了一個澳大利亞的mouse like的動物的例子，同樣做類似上面的實驗，第一次區(qū)分ab第二次區(qū)分黑白。這種動物大腦很小但是測試結果很高，是因為他們生活在wide open areas，很容易被捕食者發(fā)現(xiàn)，他們要避免天地還要抓很敏捷的昆蟲做實物，所以這方面能力很強。然后這里有個句子簡化題，大意是說動物的process different，不能說明學習能力，也不能用之前的實驗來測試。然后還說了海豚雖然做這個實驗成績很低，但是如果把visual的圖形換成auditory的聲音就會很好，所欲這個實驗不可取是因為首先實驗produce中很小的difference都會造成result的很大不同，而且這些difference都是不可避免的。其次，對某些動物不適用。
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相關背景知識：
Although humans have been the primary focus of intelligence researchers, scientists have also attempted to investigate animal intelligence, or more broadly, animal cognition. These researchers are interested in studying both mental ability in a particular species, and comparing abilities between species. They study various measures of problem solving, as well as numerical and verbal reasoning abilities. Some challenges in this area are defining intelligence so that it has the same meaning across species (e.g. comparing intelligence between literate humans and illiterate animals), and also operationalizing a measure that accurately compares mental ability across different species and contexts.
Wolfgang K梔氀攀爀's research on the intelligence of apes is an example of research in this area. Stanley Coren's book, The Intelligence of Dogs is a notable book on the topic of dog intelligence.[18] (See also: Dog intelligence.) Non-human animals particularly noted and studied for their intelligence include chimpanzees, bonobos (notably the language-using Kanzi) and other great apes, dolphins, elephants and to some extent parrots, rats and ravens.
Cephalopod intelligence also provides important comparative study. Cephalopods appear to exhibit characteristics of significant intelligence, yet their nervous systems differ radically from those of backboned animals. Vertebrates such as mammals, birds, reptiles and fish have shown a fairly high degree of intellect that varies according to each species. The same is true with arthropods.
12月12日托福閱讀第二篇
題材劃分： 國家發(fā)展史
主要內(nèi)容： 中世紀歐洲政府的變革。
宗教變得影響力越來越小，政府的管轄范圍越來越大。法國葡萄牙等一些國家創(chuàng)造了nation這個定義。國家邊界變得更清晰了。荷蘭和英國建立了parliament，具有立法權。說貴族地位下降，官僚體系上升，但不是取代。這里有幾個原因引起官僚體系上升，考了細節(jié)題。然后另一段又說了歐洲不同地方官僚體系的發(fā)展和所處時期，法國先，別的歐洲國家follow，while亞洲什么的還沒有苗頭，還舉了法國路易十六和法語的例子，說了一個句子解釋。也對比了同時期的歐洲東部和亞洲包含多個民族，不那么容易統(tǒng)一文化。然后又一段說這些國家的軍事力量是官僚體系的基石，軍隊有些特點，比如統(tǒng)一制服，醫(yī)院等。
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The High Middle Ages was the formative period in the history of the modern Western state. Kings in France, England, and Spain consolidated their power, and set up lasting governing institutions. New kingdoms such as Hungary and Poland, after their conversion to Christianity, became Central European powers. The Magyars settled Hungary around 900 under King 爀瀀ád (d. c. 907) after a series of invasions in the 9th century. The papacy, long attached to an ideology of independence from secular kings, first asserted its claim to temporal authority over the entire Christian world; the Papal Monarchy reached its apogee in the early 13th century under the pontificate of Innocent III (pope 1198–1216). Northern Crusades and the advance of Christian kingdoms and military orders into previously pagan regions in the Baltic and Finnic north-east brought the forced assimilation of numerous native peoples into European culture.
12月12日托福閱讀第三篇
題材劃分：動物類
主要內(nèi)容：鳥類應對食物短缺。
第一段講了鳥類為什么會食物短缺。比如在冬天鳥的食物例如小蟲會鉆進泥土深處，他們夠不到。還有一個原因是一些食物的營養(yǎng)不夠。所以鳥類會改變它們的食物從一種到另一種，但是在改變的這個階段它們會很脆弱。它們會通過儲存食物來度過脆弱的時期。
第二段說小鳥體內(nèi)脂肪很少，而且要不停地為活動提供能量消耗更多能量。如果不吃食物，難以支撐超過一兩天(插入題)。大鳥體脂多，消耗相對慢，能撐一周以上。
然后第三段說還可以體外儲存食物。肉食鳥寸一周，吃素的能存很多堅果以備生孩子過冬。但是挺不過一年。說這些鳥記性好，果子藏在不同地方都記得，分散儲存也是為了防止被偷。做了一個實驗(出題)證明了它們令人驚訝地記憶儲藏地方的能力。但是儲藏并不能使所有鳥類都度過艱難時期。
最后一段說冬眠，鳥類通過長時間的睡眠降低熱量的輸出，降低心跳提問到inactive的程度。有些小鳥每晚都這樣，有些是能這樣挺過好幾天，它們這種情況和某種mammal的冬眠很像。
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Hibernation is a state of inactivity and metabolic depression in endotherms. Hibernation refers to a season of heterothermy that is characterized by low body temperature, slow breathing and heart rate, and low metabolic rate. Although traditionally reserved for "deep" hibernators such as rodents, the term has been redefined to include animals such as bears and is now applied based on active metabolic suppression rather than based on absolute body temperature decline. Many experts believe that the processes of daily torpor and hibernation form a continuum and utilize similar mechanisms. Hibernation during the summer months is known as aestivation. Some reptile species (ectotherms) are said to brumate, or undergo brumation, but any possible similarities between brumation and hibernation are not firmly established. Some insects, such as the wasp Polistes exclamans hibernate by aggregating together in groups in protected places called hibernacula.
Often associated with low temperatures, the function of hibernation is to conserve energy during a period when sufficient food is unavailable. To achieve this energy saving, an endotherm will first decrease its metabolic rate, which then results in a decreased body temperature. Hibernation may last several days, weeks, or months depending on the species, ambient temperature, time of year, and individual's body condition.
12月12日托福閱讀第四篇
題材劃分： 地質(zhì)類
主要內(nèi)容： 一種礦石的化學組成可以推測那個時候的地球這種礦石的特性，讓它們得以承受地球的惡劣條件而保存下來。根據(jù)氦原子同位素的數(shù)量，氧原子的數(shù)量可以推斷當時的溫度很壓強。但是鉆石的出現(xiàn)否定了這種說法。因為鉆石需要高壓，而那時候并不存在這種條件。
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相關知識背景：
Pressure resistance：
Used in so-called diamond anvil experiments to create high-pressure environments, diamonds are able to withstand crushing pressures in excess of 600 gigapascals (6 million atmospheres).
Surface property：
Diamonds are naturally lipophilic and hydrophobic, which means the diamonds' surface cannot be wet by water but can be easily wet and stuck by oil. This property can be utilized to extract diamonds using oil when making synthetic diamonds. However, when diamond surfaces are chemically modified with certain ions, they are expected to become so hydrophilic that they can stabilize multiple layers of water ice at human body temperature.[34]
Chemical stability：
Diamonds are not very reactive. Under room temperature diamonds do not react with any chemical reagents including strong acids and bases. A diamond's surface can only be oxidized at temperatures above about 850 °C (1,560 °F) in air.