2012年托福真題：3月18日托福閱讀機經(jīng)回憶
第一篇：真菌（fungi）
>考生回憶：
·在歐洲，過去采集真菌相對容易；而現(xiàn)在不僅數(shù)量減少了，外形也變小了。真菌有很強的環(huán)境敏感度，這同樹木不同；故環(huán)境出現(xiàn)問題則真菌首當其沖。真菌也可以儲存養(yǎng)分供給樹木。
·在北美，那里的人食用真菌類食物（如蘑菇）比較少，且歷史較短。人們把其他蘑菇等都算進真菌里面。雖然沒有顯著減少，但是也有危險。
·里面用了很多TPO文章The Arrival of Plant Life in Hawaii的很多內(nèi)容；
>參考文獻說明
“歐洲真菌減少”的回憶似乎并不太合常識。經(jīng)過對自然科學類期刊論文數(shù)據(jù)庫檢索后，找到了發(fā)表于1990年的一篇論文”Decline of ectomycorrhizal fungi in Europe”，探討了歐洲“外生菌”
（Ectomycorrhizal Fungi）的數(shù)量減少，其中提到的主要原因便是環(huán)境因素，同回憶相符。該論述如下（參考閱讀中劃線句子）：
“It is argued that changes in the populations of ectomycorrhizal fungi are most likely to be attributable to indirect effects of air pollution, in particular to increases in amounts of available nitrogen (possibly in combination with acidification) and/or to decreased tree vitality wity consequent reductions in the transport of current assimilates to roots and mycorrhizas.”
該論文由學術數(shù)據(jù)庫ScienceDirect收錄，來源如下：
Eef Arnolds , “Decline of ectomycorrhizal fungi in Europe “, Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment, Volume 35, Issues 2-3, April 1991, Pages 209-244
>參考閱讀（上述論文摘要部分）
Abstract
Recent changes in the species diversity and sporocarp production of ectomycorrhizal fungi in different regions of, and forest communities within, Europe are discussed with special emphasis on events in The Netherlands. In some forests in some regions fewer ectomycorrhizal fungi are now producing sporocarps, notably those associated with trees more than 40 years old and in particular conifers, for instance species of Phellodon, Hydnellum, Suillus, Tricholoma and Cortinarius. It is argued that this decline in different parts of Europe is coincident with decreased numbers of mycorrhizas. A scheme of progressive changes with three phases of ectomycorrhizal impoverishment and seven subphases is presented. The more probable causes ofdecline are discussed, namely forest succession, the collection of sporocarps (of edible mycorrhizal fungi), changes in forest management, direct influences of air pollutants, acidification of forest soils and consequent increased availability of aluminium in soil solution, nitrogen deposition, increased litter accumulation, changes in the herb layer of forests and reduced tree vitality.
It is argued that changes in the populations of ectomycorrhizal fungi are most likely to be attributable to indirect effects of air pollution, in particular to increases in amounts of available nitrogen (possibly in combination with acidification) and/or to decreased tree vitality wity consequent reductions in the transport of current assimilates to roots and mycorrhizas. The relative importance of these different factors, and their interactions, are likely to differ in different locations. It is supposed that liming and applications of other corrective fertilizers are unlikely to restore the diversity and sporocarp production of ectomycorrhizal fungi; they may even have adverse effects. In the circumstances therefore it seems that the abatement of emissions is likely to be the only effective way of improving and sustaining stable forest ecosystems in areas at risk, notably in densely populated Europe.
第二篇：美國工業(yè)化、鐵路與內(nèi)戰(zhàn)
>考生回憶：
·美國的農(nóng)業(yè)在新英格蘭地區(qū)發(fā)展，所有的必需品由水路運輸。由于土地條件、收益甚微及內(nèi)陸農(nóng)業(yè)發(fā)達等原因，新英格蘭地區(qū)農(nóng)業(yè)發(fā)展開始轉(zhuǎn)向工業(yè)發(fā)展，而原來的農(nóng)業(yè)人口成為了首批產(chǎn)業(yè)工人。
·美國工業(yè)的發(fā)展過程中，鐵路運輸貫穿始終。隨著鐵路網(wǎng)的密集化，西部的礦產(chǎn)可以很容易地運往東部。
·而南部卻則一直發(fā)展農(nóng)業(yè)。而內(nèi)戰(zhàn)（南北戰(zhàn)爭）是一個徹底的分捩點，南部確定了其農(nóng)業(yè)主導的地位。
·這種南北經(jīng)濟向不同方向轉(zhuǎn)型并引發(fā)內(nèi)戰(zhàn)的原因歸結(jié)于鐵路的發(fā)展。
·美國的工業(yè)歸根結(jié)底是建立在車輪子上的。
>參考閱讀：
-美國早期工業(yè)化
American industrialization was facilitated by a unique confluence of geographical, social, and economic factors. The post-Revolution American population remained low relative to its European counterparts and the demand for manual labor created strong incentives to mechanize labor-intensive tasks. The eastern seaboard of the United States, with a great number of rivers and streams along the Atlantic seaboard, provided many potential sites for constructing mills and infrastructure necessary for early industrialization. A vast supply of natural resources along with a large labor supply consisting of surplus domestic rural workers and massive immigration from European nations enabled industrialization. The ready supply of labor was an advantage American industrialism had over European.
-南北鐵路建設的區(qū)別
Railroads have played a large role in the development of the United States of America, from the industrial revolution in the North-east to the colonization of the West. The American railway mania began with the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad? in 1828 and flourished until the Panic of 1873 bankrupted many companies and temporarily ended all growth. Although the South started early to build railways, it concentrated on short lines linking cotton regions to oceanic or river ports, and the absence of an interconnected network was a major handicap during the Civil War.
-鐵路因素在南部失敗中的作用
Rail was strategic during the American Civil War, and the Union used its much larger system much more effectively. Practically all the mills and factories supplying rails and equipment were in the North, and the Union blockade kept the South from getting new equipment or spare parts. The war was fought in the South, and Union raiders (and sometimes Confederates too) systematically destroyed bridges and rolling stock-and sometimes bent rails-to hinder the logistics of the enemy.
In the South most railroads in 1860 were local affairs connecting cotton regions with the nearest waterway. Most transport was by boat, not rail, and after the Union blockaded the ports in 1861 and seized the key rivers in 1862, long-distance travel was difficult. The outbreak of war had a depressing effect on the economic fortunes of the railroad companies, for the hoarding of the cotton crop in an attempt to force European intervention left railroads bereft of their main source of income. Many had to lay off employees, and in particular, let go skilled technicians and engineers. For the early years of the war, the Confederate government had a hands-off approach to the railroads. Only in mid-1863 did the Confederate government initiate an overall policy, and it was confined solely to aiding the war effort. With the legislation of impressment the same year, railroads and their rolling stock came under the de facto control of the Confederate military.
>參考文獻
Publications
·Robert C. Black, The Railroads of the Confederacy (1988); George Edgar Turner, Victory Rode the Rails: The Strategic Place of the Railroads in the Civil War (1953)
·Charles W. Ramsdell, "The Confederate Government and the Railroads, American Historical Review, Vol. 22, No. 4 (July, 1917), p. 795.
·Mary Elizabeth Massey. Ersatz in the Confederacy (1952) p. 128.
Jstor Database:
·Hermon King Murphey, “The Northern Railroads and the Civil War”, The Mississippi Valley Historical Review, Vol. 5, No. 3, Dec., 1918, p. 327
Internet Resource: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_rail_transport_in_the_United_States
第三篇：human activity and archaeological records
第三篇只回憶出了標題，而且范圍有些過大（人類活動與考古記錄），并不易于還原。
但據(jù)以為新東方的老學員回憶，其文章組織的形式是很經(jīng)典的“假設-反駁-立新論”的多理論列舉型文章。同學們今后再做閱讀時可使用大綱法閱讀，捋清每種理論的要點以及缺陷，方可避免因遺忘和術語過多導致的概念混淆。
第一篇：真菌（fungi）
>考生回憶：
·在歐洲，過去采集真菌相對容易；而現(xiàn)在不僅數(shù)量減少了，外形也變小了。真菌有很強的環(huán)境敏感度，這同樹木不同；故環(huán)境出現(xiàn)問題則真菌首當其沖。真菌也可以儲存養(yǎng)分供給樹木。
·在北美，那里的人食用真菌類食物（如蘑菇）比較少，且歷史較短。人們把其他蘑菇等都算進真菌里面。雖然沒有顯著減少，但是也有危險。
·里面用了很多TPO文章The Arrival of Plant Life in Hawaii的很多內(nèi)容；
>參考文獻說明
“歐洲真菌減少”的回憶似乎并不太合常識。經(jīng)過對自然科學類期刊論文數(shù)據(jù)庫檢索后，找到了發(fā)表于1990年的一篇論文”Decline of ectomycorrhizal fungi in Europe”，探討了歐洲“外生菌”
（Ectomycorrhizal Fungi）的數(shù)量減少，其中提到的主要原因便是環(huán)境因素，同回憶相符。該論述如下（參考閱讀中劃線句子）：
“It is argued that changes in the populations of ectomycorrhizal fungi are most likely to be attributable to indirect effects of air pollution, in particular to increases in amounts of available nitrogen (possibly in combination with acidification) and/or to decreased tree vitality wity consequent reductions in the transport of current assimilates to roots and mycorrhizas.”
該論文由學術數(shù)據(jù)庫ScienceDirect收錄，來源如下：
Eef Arnolds , “Decline of ectomycorrhizal fungi in Europe “, Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment, Volume 35, Issues 2-3, April 1991, Pages 209-244
>參考閱讀（上述論文摘要部分）
Abstract
Recent changes in the species diversity and sporocarp production of ectomycorrhizal fungi in different regions of, and forest communities within, Europe are discussed with special emphasis on events in The Netherlands. In some forests in some regions fewer ectomycorrhizal fungi are now producing sporocarps, notably those associated with trees more than 40 years old and in particular conifers, for instance species of Phellodon, Hydnellum, Suillus, Tricholoma and Cortinarius. It is argued that this decline in different parts of Europe is coincident with decreased numbers of mycorrhizas. A scheme of progressive changes with three phases of ectomycorrhizal impoverishment and seven subphases is presented. The more probable causes ofdecline are discussed, namely forest succession, the collection of sporocarps (of edible mycorrhizal fungi), changes in forest management, direct influences of air pollutants, acidification of forest soils and consequent increased availability of aluminium in soil solution, nitrogen deposition, increased litter accumulation, changes in the herb layer of forests and reduced tree vitality.
It is argued that changes in the populations of ectomycorrhizal fungi are most likely to be attributable to indirect effects of air pollution, in particular to increases in amounts of available nitrogen (possibly in combination with acidification) and/or to decreased tree vitality wity consequent reductions in the transport of current assimilates to roots and mycorrhizas. The relative importance of these different factors, and their interactions, are likely to differ in different locations. It is supposed that liming and applications of other corrective fertilizers are unlikely to restore the diversity and sporocarp production of ectomycorrhizal fungi; they may even have adverse effects. In the circumstances therefore it seems that the abatement of emissions is likely to be the only effective way of improving and sustaining stable forest ecosystems in areas at risk, notably in densely populated Europe.
第二篇：美國工業(yè)化、鐵路與內(nèi)戰(zhàn)
>考生回憶：
·美國的農(nóng)業(yè)在新英格蘭地區(qū)發(fā)展，所有的必需品由水路運輸。由于土地條件、收益甚微及內(nèi)陸農(nóng)業(yè)發(fā)達等原因，新英格蘭地區(qū)農(nóng)業(yè)發(fā)展開始轉(zhuǎn)向工業(yè)發(fā)展，而原來的農(nóng)業(yè)人口成為了首批產(chǎn)業(yè)工人。
·美國工業(yè)的發(fā)展過程中，鐵路運輸貫穿始終。隨著鐵路網(wǎng)的密集化，西部的礦產(chǎn)可以很容易地運往東部。
·而南部卻則一直發(fā)展農(nóng)業(yè)。而內(nèi)戰(zhàn)（南北戰(zhàn)爭）是一個徹底的分捩點，南部確定了其農(nóng)業(yè)主導的地位。
·這種南北經(jīng)濟向不同方向轉(zhuǎn)型并引發(fā)內(nèi)戰(zhàn)的原因歸結(jié)于鐵路的發(fā)展。
·美國的工業(yè)歸根結(jié)底是建立在車輪子上的。
>參考閱讀：
-美國早期工業(yè)化
American industrialization was facilitated by a unique confluence of geographical, social, and economic factors. The post-Revolution American population remained low relative to its European counterparts and the demand for manual labor created strong incentives to mechanize labor-intensive tasks. The eastern seaboard of the United States, with a great number of rivers and streams along the Atlantic seaboard, provided many potential sites for constructing mills and infrastructure necessary for early industrialization. A vast supply of natural resources along with a large labor supply consisting of surplus domestic rural workers and massive immigration from European nations enabled industrialization. The ready supply of labor was an advantage American industrialism had over European.
-南北鐵路建設的區(qū)別
Railroads have played a large role in the development of the United States of America, from the industrial revolution in the North-east to the colonization of the West. The American railway mania began with the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad? in 1828 and flourished until the Panic of 1873 bankrupted many companies and temporarily ended all growth. Although the South started early to build railways, it concentrated on short lines linking cotton regions to oceanic or river ports, and the absence of an interconnected network was a major handicap during the Civil War.
-鐵路因素在南部失敗中的作用
Rail was strategic during the American Civil War, and the Union used its much larger system much more effectively. Practically all the mills and factories supplying rails and equipment were in the North, and the Union blockade kept the South from getting new equipment or spare parts. The war was fought in the South, and Union raiders (and sometimes Confederates too) systematically destroyed bridges and rolling stock-and sometimes bent rails-to hinder the logistics of the enemy.
In the South most railroads in 1860 were local affairs connecting cotton regions with the nearest waterway. Most transport was by boat, not rail, and after the Union blockaded the ports in 1861 and seized the key rivers in 1862, long-distance travel was difficult. The outbreak of war had a depressing effect on the economic fortunes of the railroad companies, for the hoarding of the cotton crop in an attempt to force European intervention left railroads bereft of their main source of income. Many had to lay off employees, and in particular, let go skilled technicians and engineers. For the early years of the war, the Confederate government had a hands-off approach to the railroads. Only in mid-1863 did the Confederate government initiate an overall policy, and it was confined solely to aiding the war effort. With the legislation of impressment the same year, railroads and their rolling stock came under the de facto control of the Confederate military.
>參考文獻
Publications
·Robert C. Black, The Railroads of the Confederacy (1988); George Edgar Turner, Victory Rode the Rails: The Strategic Place of the Railroads in the Civil War (1953)
·Charles W. Ramsdell, "The Confederate Government and the Railroads, American Historical Review, Vol. 22, No. 4 (July, 1917), p. 795.
·Mary Elizabeth Massey. Ersatz in the Confederacy (1952) p. 128.
Jstor Database:
·Hermon King Murphey, “The Northern Railroads and the Civil War”, The Mississippi Valley Historical Review, Vol. 5, No. 3, Dec., 1918, p. 327
Internet Resource: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_rail_transport_in_the_United_States
第三篇：human activity and archaeological records
第三篇只回憶出了標題，而且范圍有些過大（人類活動與考古記錄），并不易于還原。
但據(jù)以為新東方的老學員回憶，其文章組織的形式是很經(jīng)典的“假設-反駁-立新論”的多理論列舉型文章。同學們今后再做閱讀時可使用大綱法閱讀，捋清每種理論的要點以及缺陷，方可避免因遺忘和術語過多導致的概念混淆。