Over 100 years ago recognition was given to the fact that New Zealanders needed more than the theory of academia, as provided by the University of New Zealand, they also needed the practicality of technical training and education. From this era came the revised Manual and Technical Institution Act of 1900, providing the opportunity to plant the roots of polytechnic and institute of technology vocational training in New Zealand.
100多年以前新西蘭人就已經(jīng)意識到與諸多大學所提供的學術理論教育相比，技術培訓和職業(yè)教育更為重要。
Technical and Vocational Education is mainly offered at institutes of technology, polytechnics, private training establishments and in the workplace. However, some programmes are also available in secondary schools, wananga government establishments, one college of education and several universities.
新西蘭的理工學院，技術學院，私立的培訓機構以及實習基地是技術和職業(yè)教育的主要提供者。此外有些課程也在中學，毛利學校，一所教育學院及幾所大學內(nèi)教授。
Vocational Education can be delivered through a variety of ‘delivery practices’.
職業(yè)教育可以通過實踐將知識和技能傳授給學生
ITP’s may develop their own Certificates or Diplomas and deliver these either purely “off job” through theory “classroom” delivery and “workshop” learning. Or a mixture of cadetship placement whereby an industry group agree to provide “on-job” learning and experiential activities in line with the curriculum document for specific periods of time, eg 6 month placements. These apprentices are paid which reduces the financial impact of apprenticeship training on the student.
行業(yè)技術學院通常采用全脫產(chǎn)和學習實踐相結合的方式把理論知識和行業(yè)技能傳授給學生，并在畢業(yè)后獲得相應的技術學歷證書和?？莆膽{?；蛘吒鶕?jù)具體行業(yè)的要求可以進行在職的培訓或一定時期的在職學習或?qū)嶒炐曰顒颖热?個月的培訓課程。這樣的學徒培訓
The other main option, encouraged by Government and by legislative decree is through the Industry Training Organisations of which there are over 46. Agricultural ITO, Plumbing & Gas ITO, Electrical Supply ITO, Building Construction ITO and Motor Industry ITO.
除了上述的學校和培訓機構之外，政府和各項法規(guī)還鼓勵學生選擇到各行業(yè)培訓組織去接受職業(yè)教育培訓。比如，農(nóng)業(yè)培訓組織，管道工和煤氣工培訓組織，電工培訓組織，建筑行業(yè)培訓組織和汽摩維修行業(yè)組織等。
These ITO’s are bodies that represent particular industry sectors. ITO’s develop and maintain national unit (skill) standards and qualifications for their sector. They also facilitate “on-job” training and courses. Workplace assessors are employed to confirm competence in the apprentices “on-job” work skills and under-pinning knowledge. The employer also has obligations to be the workplace assessor as well.
這些行業(yè)培訓組織是各個行業(yè)的關鍵組成，他們發(fā)展和維持著技術標準和資格，其本身也提供一系列的在職培訓課程。 培訓中實習車間主管有資格評定學徒的在職培訓技能和業(yè)務知識是否合格。雇主同樣也有資格對這些培訓作出評判。
How Qualifications are Maintained in New Zealand
Within New Zealand education formal qualifications are offered from Year 11 (age 15) in the school system and from certificate to doctorate level in the tertiary system.
新西蘭教育體系中正式的學歷文憑是從11年級（15歲的學生）開始算起，高等教育提供從學歷證書到博士學位不同級別的學歷。
Vocational Education is mainly represented in the Certificate level i.e. National Certificate in Electrical Supply, although there is now a growing trend to offer Diploma level qualifications in recognition of the increasingly complex nature of industry trade workers. Technical competence rather than purely hand-skills is becoming an increasing part of the ‘job’ and hence industry is requesting a greater depth of technical competence in its employees. Diplomas in Engineering – Mechanical and Civil are leading the way.
由于對行業(yè)技術工人綜合素質(zhì)的要求逐漸提高，越來越多的學校在技術教育和培訓領域也提供的?？莆膽{，但是目前還是以證書課程為主，比如電力供應證書。 現(xiàn)代技術工作中要求的技術已經(jīng)不再是單純的手工技能，而是更加趨向于各項能力的完備性和科學性。工程學?？莆膽{ – 機械與土木工程就是由此應運而生的課程。
The Built Environment – architectural draughting, and quantity surveying are also demanding of this higher level of understanding and learning.
建筑環(huán)境學中的建筑通風，質(zhì)量監(jiān)理等學科就需要很高的學習和理解能力。
New Zealand Qualifications Authority (NZQA) maintains an overview of qualifications in school and tertiary education and training. NZQA has developed the New Zealand Register of Quality Assured Qualifications (the ‘Register’) established to provide a means to clearly identify all quality assured qualifications in New Zealand. The Register has ten levels and is composed of qualifications that are registered in accordance with an agreed set of title definitions. It provides a comprehensive list of all quality assured qualifications and benchmarking of New Zealand qualifications by describing what Level they are at on the Register. The Register is available on the internet at www.NZQA.govt.nz.
新西蘭學歷評審委員會（簡稱NZQA）負責評估管理各級學校和高等教育及培訓機構所頒發(fā)的各種學歷證書。NZQA設立了學歷質(zhì)量認可的注冊機制，為全新西蘭各種院校所提供的學歷提供了一個明確的質(zhì)量評審標準。一共設有10個的學歷質(zhì)量認可等級，并對每個等級的認證給予了明確的定義和解釋。NZQA還為所有有質(zhì)量保證的學歷文憑和教育質(zhì)量標準建立了一個完整的檔案表，詳情請見：www.NZQA.govt.nz 。
Quality Assurance of Tertiary Education
保證質(zhì)量的高等教育
Quality Assurance of tertiary education in New Zealand focuses on the quality of teaching outcomes recognised through qualifications as a whole, and also on the systems and processes that support quality deliveries by providers.
新西蘭高等教育質(zhì)量保證主要側重在整體的教學質(zhì)量和各種保障質(zhì)量教學的體系和服務。
Only those tertiary qualifications and providers that are quality assured by a quality approval body are eligible for Government financial assistance. Quality assurance bodies decide whether providers and qualification developers meet appropriate standards.
只有那些質(zhì)量有所保證并得到相關認證的高等學歷和高等院校才有資格享受政府的財政支持。學歷的質(zhì)量達標與否取決于院校和文憑是否符合一系列標準。
NZQA also accredits industry training organisations to register workplace assessors.
NZQA同時也授權行業(yè)培訓組織為實習車間主管進行登記注冊。
A New Zealand Quality assured qualification is according to the NZQA web-site:
Ø a formally recognised award for educational or training attainment, where formal recognition means that the qualification is approved by a legislatively approved body. For vocational training this body is the New Zealand Qualifications Authority.
根據(jù)NZQA網(wǎng)站，新西蘭學歷質(zhì)量認可：
Ø 對于教育和培訓水平的正式認證意為其學歷文憑需經(jīng)過法定的評估組織所認證。對于職業(yè)教育而言這個評估組織就是新西蘭學歷評審委員會
In general, a qualification is defined as requiring full-time equivalent study of three months or greater (40 credits). Study time is an estimate of the typical time it takes a learner to achieve the learning outcomes of the qualification. This includes direct contact time with teachers as trainers, as well as time spent in self study, assignments and assessments.
通常，一個完整的文憑要求全日制學習少三個月以上，即相當于40個學分的課程。學習的時間是一個基本的評估標準，學生必須要花費一定的時間才能夠真正學習和領會文憑課程中所教授的內(nèi)容，具體包括與老師之間的溝通互動，自習，作業(yè)和論文等。
All qualifications – school and post-school qualifications must be assigned to one of the 10 levels of the New Zealand Register of Quality Assured Qualifications (New Zealand Register).
新西蘭所有院校提供的學歷文憑必須是在NZQA設立的10個學歷質(zhì)量認可等級中注冊的。
Classification Criteria
級別標準
The Register criteria set minimum credit and level requirements for each type of qualification. It is possible for a qualification to include credit achieved at levels above and below the level of which the qualification is awarded.
在學歷評估注冊標準中規(guī)定了每種學歷中學分和級別的低要求。
Level 1 to 4 Certificate level
Level 5 to 6 Diploma – Graduate Certificate
Level 7 Degrees – Bachelor
Level 8 Postgraduate Diplomas, Bachelor (Hons)
Level 9 Masters Degrees
Level 10 Doctorate Degree.
1級到4級 為證書級別
5級到6級 為?？莆膽{ – 高級證書級別
7級 為學士學位級別
8級 為研究生文憑 或者 榮譽學士 級別
9級 為碩士學位級別
10級 為博士學位級別
Vocational Education in New Zealand involves Certificates and diplomas
Pre-Trade Training Level 1 to 2
Certificates Level 3 and Level 4
Diplomas Level 5 and Level 6
職業(yè)教育在新西蘭一般提供證書和?？莆膽{兩種課程，
崗前培訓 （就業(yè)前培訓） 1級到2級
證書文憑 3級到4級
?？莆膽{ 5級到6級
Vocational Education in New Zealand refers to:
新西蘭職業(yè)教育涉及面
The New Zealand Standard of Classification of Occupations 1999 refers to a Major Group – Trades Workers.
新西蘭職業(yè)分類法案（1999）設計了一個主要的群體-- 產(chǎn)業(yè)技術工人。
This major group classifies those occupations in which the main tasks include the construction and finishing of buildings, the repairing and servicing of electrical, electronic and mechanical machinery, the making or precision instruments, painting and other trades work.
這個群體包括那些服務于建筑，電器維修和保養(yǎng)，電子機械設備，精密儀器制造，噴漆等等技術產(chǎn)業(yè)的工人。
Each major group contains sub-groups:
每個組群里面還有細分：
e.g.
Building Trades workers includes:
· Building frame and related trades workers
· Bricklayers
· Stone masons
· Carpenter and/or joiner
· Builder (including contractor)
· Boat Builder
比如：
建筑行業(yè)的工人具體包括：
Ÿ 房屋外型建造和相關行業(yè)工人
Ÿ 磚瓦工
Ÿ 石匠
Ÿ 木匠和精細木工
Ÿ 建筑商（包括承包商）
Ÿ 造船工人
Related to this group is the Building Finishers and related trades workers:
· Plasterers
· Glazier
· Plumber
· Gas Fitter
· Painter, Decorator and/or Paperhanger
· Spray painter
· Sign writer.
與此行業(yè)群體相關的是建筑整修工和其他：
· 泥水匠（石膏師）
· 玻璃工人
· 煤氣工
· 油漆工，裝修工和裱糊工人
· 噴漆工
·
A further sub-group is Electrician:
· Electricians
· Transport Electrician
· Appliance Electrician.
更加細分出的群體是電工：
· 電工
· 交運電工
· 電器電工
The second Major Group under Trades is Metal and Machinery Trades workers:
· Metal Mould Maker
· Coach Builder
· Sheet Metal Worker
· Boiler Maker
· Fitter & Welder
· Panel Beater.
工程技術下分的第二個主要群體是金屬和機械工種的工人：
· 金屬模具制造工人
· 建筑指導
· 金屬片制造工
· 鍋爐制造工
· 焊工
· 板金工
A further sub-group relates to Blacksmith and Toolmakers:
· Blacksmith
· Pattern Maker
· Tool and/or Die Maker
· Fitter and Turner
· Saw Doctor
· Machinery Mechanic
· Motor Mechanic
· Aircraft Engine Mechanic
· Heating Ventilation and Refrigeration Mechanic
· Small Engine Mechanic
· Mechanical Products Inspector and Tester.
與鐵匠和模具制造工人密切相關的組群是：
· 鐵匠
· 模具工
· 金屬印模制造工
· FITTER AND TURNER
· 磨鋸工
· 機工
· 摩托技師
· 飛行器工程技師
· 熱通風及制冷技師
· 小型發(fā)動機機師
· 機械產(chǎn)品檢測人員
Another sub-group relates to Electrical and Electronic Instrument Mechanics and Fitters:
· Electrical Fitter
· Fire Alarm Technician
· Electronics Service
· Avionics Mechanic
· Radio and Television Repairer.
另外一個與電子電氣機械設備安裝維修和調(diào)試工作相關的工種群體是：
· 電氣。。。
· 失火報警器技工
· 電器維修
· 航空電子設備技師
· 電臺電視維修師
Sub-group Precision Instrument Makers and Related Workers:
· Industrial Precision Instrument Maker and Repairer
精密儀器制造的相關工種：
· 工業(yè)精密一起制造和維修
The Waikato Institute of Technology (Wintec) under its School of Trades, Construction and Engineering offers a wide range of the above training, as well as horticulture, agriculture, floristry, hospitality and catering, health and beauty and hairdressing.
Wintec下設的技術學院提供幾乎全部上述課程，另外還有園藝，農(nóng)業(yè)，花卉，酒店管理與服務，健康和美容美發(fā)等其他專業(yè)學科。
The main pedagogical method of Vocational Education in New Zealand is Competency-Based Education and Training.
新西蘭職業(yè)教育的教學方法主要以注重培養(yǎng)學生工作能力為宗旨
Competency based training was made popular (Kirka 1998) in the US in the 70s through the performance based vocational teacher education involvement. The National Vocational Qualification NVQs system in England and Wales (1986) and the New Zealand National Qualifications Framework are examples of nationwide adoption of competency based standards. In New Zealand the adoption of competency based standards as a means of assessment were advanced by a strong political impetus. This competency assessment approach is believed to be the way to prepare a workforce to participate successfully in a competitive global economy.
上個世紀70年代，美國的職業(yè)教育就強調(diào)以實踐技能為教育基礎，要求從事職業(yè)培訓教育的老師通過自己的言傳身教將實際工作技能傳授給學生。 在英格蘭和威爾士（1986）以及新西蘭也采用國家職業(yè)教育學歷評估體系為能力培養(yǎng)為基礎的職業(yè)教育設立了的審核標準。 在新西蘭強大的政治推動力推進了這一標準的發(fā)展。注重能力培養(yǎng)，并以此為審核評估職業(yè)教育質(zhì)量的方式被認為是培養(yǎng)能成功適應全球經(jīng)濟競爭的勞動力大軍的可行之路。
Competency Based Education Training is seen as a way to improve the relationship between education/training and workplace requirements. It is individualised emphasises outcomes (i.e. what individuals can and can’t do) and allows flexible pathways for achieving the outcomes. It is designed to make it as clear as possible what is required to be achieved and what standard is to be used to measure achievement i.e. competence. The student is assessed as competent or not yet competent rather than the behaviouralistic method of achievement of pass or fail. Chappell (1996) champions this method as he sees it as overcoming the divide between hands and minds, between theory and practice, and vocational and general education.
側重技能培訓的技術教育也可以很好的提升職業(yè)教育和勞動力市場需求之間的關系。靈活實用的學習方式和途徑讓教育產(chǎn)生的成果更加個性化，這樣的方式讓勞動力市場的就業(yè)需求更加明確，即注重工作中的實際操作能力。評估學生的學習情況主要看能否勝任實際工作，而不是單單采用考試能否通過這樣的標準。 Chappell(1996) 非常擁護這樣的教學和評估方式，因為這樣的方式克服了腦力勞動和體力勞工完全分離的弊端，改善了教育中理論和實踐脫節(jié)的問題，消除了職業(yè)教育低于一般教育的理解誤區(qū)。
Does a Competency Based Education Training for Vocational Education give Employers what they want?
注重能力培養(yǎng)的職業(yè)教育和培訓能夠真正及雇主之所需嗎？
In order for Competency Based standards to meet the curriculum requirements of industry depends on the credibility the standards have for industry. Thus it is imperative for their acceptability that they do represent the industry requirements. In New Zealand the answer to this has been the establishment of Industry Training Organisations ITOs who are in fact the standards-setting bodies and should be employer led.
基于行業(yè)標準的可靠性，能力為基礎的職業(yè)教育培養(yǎng)的評估標準才能達到行業(yè)對于勞動力的要求，因為產(chǎn)業(yè)對于勞工力的可接受性很關鍵，因為他們體現(xiàn)了行業(yè)對工人的需求標準。新西蘭的行業(yè)培訓組織（ITOs）就此設立了一系列被行業(yè)廣泛承認和應用的勞動力接受（適用性）標準。
Competency Based Education Training whilst adopted in New Zealand and fast becoming the accepted method for assessment has both its proponents and its opponents. Proponents claim that Competency Based Education Training allows for a learning society where education is an empowering tool for economic independence. Opponents (Ecclestone 1997) claim that knowledge is too narrowly defined in terms of employer needs, and rather than being a framework, the competency steps are merely a prescription through which educational funding is channelled, by which tutors are benchmarked and assessed, and it ultimately decides how workers progression and pay are determined. (Hodkinson and Issit 1995; MulCathy 1996).
當然對于這樣以注重能力和技能培養(yǎng)為本的教學評估方式也是有人支持有人反對。有些人認為能力為本的職業(yè)教育可以讓教育變成推動經(jīng)濟獨立與發(fā)展的有效工具。反對的人（Ecclestone, 1997）則認為這樣以來知識就從某種意義上講狹隘的變成了只為滿足雇主要求而產(chǎn)生的東西，而不是一個宏觀上的概念。所謂能力培養(yǎng)也不過是教育基金通過
However, for the New Zealand situation Competency Based Education Training clearly assists vocational education in that it allows for a mixture of “on-job” training coupled with practical standard based assessment and “off-job” theoretical education undertaken to reinforce or explain the required theoretical knowledge necessary for students/apprentices, through which they can engage in an increasingly and technological, global workplace.
然而就目前新西蘭的現(xiàn)狀來看，能力為本的教育和培養(yǎng)方針很明確的指導著職業(yè)教育和培訓 ，它采用有實踐標準為評估基礎的在職培訓和理論與實踐相結合的脫產(chǎn)學習兩種方式的結合來培養(yǎng)適應服務于現(xiàn)代化，全球化的技術行業(yè)的勞動者。
Workplace Learning and Vocational Education
車間實習和職業(yè)教育
“On-job” components of Vocational Education.
職業(yè)教育的在職培訓部分
Research on how people learn in the workplace demonstrates that what is taking place is constructivist or situated learning. In reality through cognitive apprenticeship. (Karker 1998) Studies of apprentices in several trades showed that what helped students learn the most especially with ill-defined, complex or risky situations was having someone model how to understand and deal with the situations.
通過在幾個工程技術領域里對學徒的研究表明實習可以幫助他們在混亂，復雜甚至有些危險因素的環(huán)境中完善知識和技能，并提升他們理解和處理各種問題的能力。
Hart-Landresberg Brainger and Reder (1992) studied how hospital workers “l(fā)earn the ropes”. It showed that learning was concurrent with the doing. With students reflecting on their actions – the doing – in order to interpret and construct the knowledge that they require.
Hart-Landresberg Brainger and Reder (1992) 致力于研究醫(yī)務工作者如何學習捆綁。研究顯示學與做應當是并行的，實際操作可以更好的幫助學習者完善和矯正自己的理論知識。
The philosophy of “on-job” training according to Billet (1994b) concludes that in the informal learning setting of the workplace, effective learning comes from learners’ engagement in authentic activities guided by experts – A master plumber, or a master builder, or an A grade mechanic – and interacting with other learners. So although construction of understanding is unique to each individual it is heavily influenced by the workplace culture of practice. For example in a plumbing setting the individual apprentice will learn “hand skills” but these are heavily influenced by the particular workplace culture. If the workplace places emphasis on risk mitigation – occupation Health and Safety – cleanliness and tidiness – Public Health and ensuring the technical specifications as determined by the manufacture carefully interpreted, then those values will be incorporated into the students learning.
根據(jù)Billet (1994b)的結論，在職培訓是一種非正式的學習過程，有效的學習是在專業(yè)人員的技術指導之下進行實踐操作，并與其他學習者進行交流和互動。因此對每一個學習者對知識和工作的理解是深受整個實習操作車間的文化氛圍影響的。例如，在管道鋪設車間，每一個學徒都將學習一些“手工技術”，如果整個實習車間比較注重工作中危險因素的防范 – 職業(yè)健康和安全 – 工作環(huán)境的清潔整齊 – 公共健康以及仔細閱讀產(chǎn)品說明書并在工作過程中嚴格達到技術要求，那么這些有價值的理念就會被灌輸?shù)綄W徒將來的工作中。
New Zealand trainers have found that “On-job” apprentices value direct instruction especially for information that they were unlikely to learn without it being made explicit. However, the quality of instruction is important to them. They want it to help them understand why things have to be done and they want it to be at their level, not “talking down to them” (Billet 1994b).
新西蘭的培訓人員發(fā)現(xiàn)“在職”學徒重視那些工作須知和說明，尤其是那些不可能學到或者被明確教授過的信息。因此培訓人員就需要幫助受訓者理解這些內(nèi)容，并重視這樣的信息。
“On-job” training has the advantage of ensuring that activity ( repeated actions is a key factor in the apprentices’ knowledge construction) and participation in everyday work activities “forces” learners to access higher order procedural and propositional knowledge. By ensuring actions are repeated in real workplaces it ensures that this experience adds to the apprentices’ index of knowledge, and active encouragement in active problem solving reinforces learning. In this type of learning – constructivist or situated learning, reinforcement is the internal satisfaction that comes from understanding new activities i.e. the apprentice is able to adapt existing knowledge structures to the new task and build on that knowledge to shape a greater more complex understanding.
在職培訓也有很多優(yōu)勢，受訓工人重復一些操作對他們自身的知識構成幫助很大，而且在每天工作過程中感受工作的壓力和強度有助于他們達到更高的工作水平。而且重復工作可以讓受訓工人把所學知識歸納成系統(tǒng)并加強處理問題的能力，從而進一步強化知識的掌握。在這樣系統(tǒng)化的學習過程中學徒們可以持續(xù)學習實踐并加強自己的能力，很多學徒就可以把現(xiàn)存知識運用到新的工作中，并進而理解和完善所學的知識。
To summarise the “on-job” workplace component of apprenticeship training it can be seen that it has a number of strengths as a learning environment (Billet 1996):
1. Authentic – real, goal-directed activities. Apprentices feel they are doing something;
2. Access to guidance. Two fold – both close assistance from experts and “distant” observing and listening to the other workers in the workplace and the way the physical environment is set out;
3. Everyday problem solving which adds to the apprentices index of knowledge; and
4. Intrinsic reinforcement.
總結學徒在職培訓這種方式可以有以下幾方面的優(yōu)點：
1． 真正目標明確的活動。學徒能夠身臨其境的進行實踐操作。
2． 可以在實踐中接受行業(yè)專門培訓人員的指導
3． 每一天都可以學習解決工作中出現(xiàn)的問題
4． 內(nèi)在加強
Billet (1996) acknowledges that there are also limitations to workplace settings.
1. Apprentices may construct inappropriate knowledge, especially if the “expert” does not engage appropriately with the apprentice or teaches inaccurate methods or “out of date” practices, especially in relation to legislative requirements.
2. Covert inappropriate knowledge may also be constructed and interspersed with appropriate learning (e.g. racist or sexist attitudes, unsafe workplaces).
3. Lack of sufficient or more challenging authentic activities i.e. an employer may be very specialised and only allow the apprentice experience in a narrow range of the required activities for a qualification . a plumber may not lay very many drains but only install hat water cylinders.
4. Reluctance of experts to participate or restrictions on their assistance – these are often related to employees’ sheer lack of sufficient time to spend with apprentices and economic pressures to push apprentices to carry out work that they may have not had sufficient experience in to really construct their knowledge base.
同時這樣的方式也有幾方面的問題：
1． 學徒可能接受了一些不是很正確的知識，尤其當“專家”的指點不得當，或者老師們的過時落伍的工作及教學方式，尤其是一些與法律條文或要求相關的知識點上。
2． 由于種族主義，性別歧視，不安全的工作環(huán)境等因素引起的知識上的誤導。
3． 缺乏有效或者更富挑戰(zhàn)性的活動，比如雇主可能只強調(diào)學徒具有單一能力，管道工可能只被要求安裝熱水管而沒有被要求鋪設所有下水管道
4． 由于時間因素，或者經(jīng)濟壓力等原因，學徒在有限的學習時間里沒有得到充足的實踐訓練和知識結構的培養(yǎng)。
“Off-job” Training
脫產(chǎn)培訓
“Off-job” training is completed in an accredited learning institution. This is a mix of classroom theory based learning and workshop practical learning to consolidate the “on-job” learning, to correct any inappropriate learning and to ensure all experiential activities are covered off by the apprentice.
“Off-job” training aims for apprentices to cover off “required underpinning theoretical knowledge”. This is usually done in a classroom with a tutorial/lecturing teaching practice, the most effective being when the class is less than 20.
This theory is followed up with practical classes featuring demonstrations and experiential activity in a “work shop” situation. The aim is for apprentices to organise information and relate it to their existing knowledge. Either adding to it or correcting their body of knowledge.
脫產(chǎn)培訓是指在學的過程中完善技能的學習方式，它是課堂理論知識學習和車間實習相結合，同時她也很好的鞏固了在職學習和培訓的內(nèi)容。
脫產(chǎn)培訓旨在幫助學徒們在實際操作中更好的理解和運用所學的知識，這樣的高效率輔導課和培訓一般不超過20節(jié)，但是內(nèi)容緊湊充實。
理論教育也被貫穿于實踐之中，學生們會在實習車間和工作基地將理論運用于實際工作，這讓作為學徒的受訓者能夠?qū)⒗碚撆c實踐很好的結合起來，更好的在時間中不斷總結創(chuàng)新。
Barriers to learning on “off job”
脫產(chǎn)培訓面臨的挑戰(zhàn)
Barriers on block courses relate to time constraints, administrative procedures, community pressures (accountability demands, standardized testing) (Parrell 1996).
However, the biggest block for effective use of time and tutorial expertise is the lack of preparation by apprentices for the block course.
Apprentices when they sign their apprenticeship contract, sign up to being responsible for learning and undertaking the study required to be done in their own time.
Or they may have needed to have had a wider experience than their employer had been able to give them i.e. A Block course may be covering five specific learning activities – of the 20 apprentice only 5 may have already experienced all those five activities, the other 15 a mixture of them. Also, only about 10 of the 20 may have completed the Distance Learning Material required of them. Hence the tutor of the block course has to take 2 or 3 of the 10 days allocated to bring all students up to the required standard before they can start on the learning activities required for the “block course”.
These barriers to effective learning can be mitigated by employers ensuring their apprentice has completed the Distance Learning Material and only signing it off after checking appropriate knowledge.
Another way around the barrier of insufficient skill experience is by viewing the apprenticeship required skills and learning activities holistically by the industry rather than just the employer. Hence the apprentice may be placed in three or four workplaces throughout their apprenticeship training to ensure appropriate exposure and knowledge acquisition is obtained over the whole range of required knowledge.
Apprentices can then build up their “signed off” portfolio of applied work through a variety of workplace situations.
短期課程的開設涉及到時間約束，行政管理程序，社區(qū)需求的壓力等（例如：會計人員的需求，工作水平基本標準的測試）（Parrell, 1996）
然而，不能更有效的安排時間和指導專家的障礙是學徒缺乏對短期課程的學習準備工作。
當學徒們簽署了確定他們的學徒身份的合同書，他們在合同書中同意他們將有責任去學習各種工作經(jīng)驗， 并且同意用他們的業(yè)余時間來學習雇主所要求的知識。.
或者他們也許需要掌握比雇主教授他們的更多的工作經(jīng)驗等等。一個短期課程也許包含了5個特殊的學習內(nèi)容---20 名學徒中也許只有5名學徒已經(jīng)體驗過這種工作經(jīng)驗，而其他15名學徒只體驗了其中的部分。又或者，他們當中的只有10名學徒已經(jīng)完成他們工作所要求的遠程教育的教材。因此，作為該短期課程的導師在開始教授“短期課程”之前不得不抽出2-3天的時間將所有的學員都達到所要求的基本標準水平。
如果雇主能保證他們的學徒已經(jīng)完成了遠程教育教材，并在能保證學徒已經(jīng)具備了正確的知識后才簽署合同，短期課程教育才可以避免以上類似的障礙。
另一個缺乏技術經(jīng)驗的障礙是學徒所需要的整體的技術和學習內(nèi)容來自于整個行業(yè)而不是某個雇主。因此，學徒們在他們的學徒生涯期間將被派到3或4個工作環(huán)境中去接受培訓， 以保證他們能準確掌握所要求的各種知識。
Summary
總結
The New Zealand Vocation Education in summary is based around a National Qualifications framework – the Register which is in the main controlled by ITO’s who represent industry needs for their particular workforce. They formulate National Certificates and National Diplomas based on a unit standard curriculum which utilises competency based assessment. The delivery methodology includes a mixture of “on-job” and “off-job” experiential/constructivist pedology and is quality assured by an independent natural body – the NZQA.
In New Zealand vocational education has over the past 8 years received increased levels of state investment on the understanding that VET is an important way to improve a nation’s economic performance (Strathdee 2003).
The introduction of the “Modern Apprenticeship Scheme”, and the Gateway Programme, which is designed to facilitate school and business institutions are aimed at “Growing an Innovative New Zealand Framework” latterly called the Innovation Framework which is part of a broader reform agenda designed to transform New Zealand’s economy by “growing more talent”. Underpinning the Innovations Framework is the view that those displaced by globalisation, the individual, new technology and free-market reforms were not benefiting from any associated economic prosperity. In order for them to do so increased numbers of tertiary places were made available. It was seen as an important investment in human capital to increase the trainees in vocational education. In this way New Zealand could rapidly up skill itself to provide the necessary skills it requires to participate in a growing technical global economy.
總而言之，新西蘭職業(yè)技術教育基于一個的學歷證書的框架，--注冊者將主要受ITO’s （國家行業(yè)培訓委員會）的嚴格控制， ITO’s 代表了行業(yè)對特殊勞動力的需求，他們在標準單位課程的基礎上制定了證書和文憑，這種標準單位課程運用了以能力為基礎的評估方法。該證書的頒發(fā)包括了在職和脫產(chǎn)的學習經(jīng)驗，并且該證書受機構NZQA新西蘭國家學歷評估委員會認可。
新西蘭政府在過去8年里提高了對新西蘭的職業(yè)技術教育的投資，因為國家已經(jīng)意識到職業(yè)技術培訓對整個國家的經(jīng)濟建設至關重要(Strathdee 2003)。
“現(xiàn)代學徒計劃”的說明和入門課程是為了促進學校和商業(yè)學院為實現(xiàn)“發(fā)展一個創(chuàng)新的新西蘭式的教育框架”的目標所設計的，該目標后來被稱為創(chuàng)新框架，被作為更廣泛的改革議程的一部分， 發(fā)展更多地精英來更好的改變新西蘭經(jīng)濟。
創(chuàng)新框架的提倡是因為那些被全球化，個人化，新科技和自由貿(mào)易所代替的改革并沒有從相關的經(jīng)濟繁榮中受益。增加第三教育基地可以幫助實現(xiàn)這個目標。增加職業(yè)教育培訓的學員被視為是一項重要的人力資源的投資。只有這樣，新西蘭才能迅速的提高自身的技術能力，以投身到一個迅速發(fā)展的全球性科技化的經(jīng)濟當中去。
100多年以前新西蘭人就已經(jīng)意識到與諸多大學所提供的學術理論教育相比，技術培訓和職業(yè)教育更為重要。
Technical and Vocational Education is mainly offered at institutes of technology, polytechnics, private training establishments and in the workplace. However, some programmes are also available in secondary schools, wananga government establishments, one college of education and several universities.
新西蘭的理工學院，技術學院，私立的培訓機構以及實習基地是技術和職業(yè)教育的主要提供者。此外有些課程也在中學，毛利學校，一所教育學院及幾所大學內(nèi)教授。
Vocational Education can be delivered through a variety of ‘delivery practices’.
職業(yè)教育可以通過實踐將知識和技能傳授給學生
ITP’s may develop their own Certificates or Diplomas and deliver these either purely “off job” through theory “classroom” delivery and “workshop” learning. Or a mixture of cadetship placement whereby an industry group agree to provide “on-job” learning and experiential activities in line with the curriculum document for specific periods of time, eg 6 month placements. These apprentices are paid which reduces the financial impact of apprenticeship training on the student.
行業(yè)技術學院通常采用全脫產(chǎn)和學習實踐相結合的方式把理論知識和行業(yè)技能傳授給學生，并在畢業(yè)后獲得相應的技術學歷證書和?？莆膽{?；蛘吒鶕?jù)具體行業(yè)的要求可以進行在職的培訓或一定時期的在職學習或?qū)嶒炐曰顒颖热?個月的培訓課程。這樣的學徒培訓
The other main option, encouraged by Government and by legislative decree is through the Industry Training Organisations of which there are over 46. Agricultural ITO, Plumbing & Gas ITO, Electrical Supply ITO, Building Construction ITO and Motor Industry ITO.
除了上述的學校和培訓機構之外，政府和各項法規(guī)還鼓勵學生選擇到各行業(yè)培訓組織去接受職業(yè)教育培訓。比如，農(nóng)業(yè)培訓組織，管道工和煤氣工培訓組織，電工培訓組織，建筑行業(yè)培訓組織和汽摩維修行業(yè)組織等。
These ITO’s are bodies that represent particular industry sectors. ITO’s develop and maintain national unit (skill) standards and qualifications for their sector. They also facilitate “on-job” training and courses. Workplace assessors are employed to confirm competence in the apprentices “on-job” work skills and under-pinning knowledge. The employer also has obligations to be the workplace assessor as well.
這些行業(yè)培訓組織是各個行業(yè)的關鍵組成，他們發(fā)展和維持著技術標準和資格，其本身也提供一系列的在職培訓課程。 培訓中實習車間主管有資格評定學徒的在職培訓技能和業(yè)務知識是否合格。雇主同樣也有資格對這些培訓作出評判。
How Qualifications are Maintained in New Zealand
Within New Zealand education formal qualifications are offered from Year 11 (age 15) in the school system and from certificate to doctorate level in the tertiary system.
新西蘭教育體系中正式的學歷文憑是從11年級（15歲的學生）開始算起，高等教育提供從學歷證書到博士學位不同級別的學歷。
Vocational Education is mainly represented in the Certificate level i.e. National Certificate in Electrical Supply, although there is now a growing trend to offer Diploma level qualifications in recognition of the increasingly complex nature of industry trade workers. Technical competence rather than purely hand-skills is becoming an increasing part of the ‘job’ and hence industry is requesting a greater depth of technical competence in its employees. Diplomas in Engineering – Mechanical and Civil are leading the way.
由于對行業(yè)技術工人綜合素質(zhì)的要求逐漸提高，越來越多的學校在技術教育和培訓領域也提供的?？莆膽{，但是目前還是以證書課程為主，比如電力供應證書。 現(xiàn)代技術工作中要求的技術已經(jīng)不再是單純的手工技能，而是更加趨向于各項能力的完備性和科學性。工程學?？莆膽{ – 機械與土木工程就是由此應運而生的課程。
The Built Environment – architectural draughting, and quantity surveying are also demanding of this higher level of understanding and learning.
建筑環(huán)境學中的建筑通風，質(zhì)量監(jiān)理等學科就需要很高的學習和理解能力。
New Zealand Qualifications Authority (NZQA) maintains an overview of qualifications in school and tertiary education and training. NZQA has developed the New Zealand Register of Quality Assured Qualifications (the ‘Register’) established to provide a means to clearly identify all quality assured qualifications in New Zealand. The Register has ten levels and is composed of qualifications that are registered in accordance with an agreed set of title definitions. It provides a comprehensive list of all quality assured qualifications and benchmarking of New Zealand qualifications by describing what Level they are at on the Register. The Register is available on the internet at www.NZQA.govt.nz.
新西蘭學歷評審委員會（簡稱NZQA）負責評估管理各級學校和高等教育及培訓機構所頒發(fā)的各種學歷證書。NZQA設立了學歷質(zhì)量認可的注冊機制，為全新西蘭各種院校所提供的學歷提供了一個明確的質(zhì)量評審標準。一共設有10個的學歷質(zhì)量認可等級，并對每個等級的認證給予了明確的定義和解釋。NZQA還為所有有質(zhì)量保證的學歷文憑和教育質(zhì)量標準建立了一個完整的檔案表，詳情請見：www.NZQA.govt.nz 。
Quality Assurance of Tertiary Education
保證質(zhì)量的高等教育
Quality Assurance of tertiary education in New Zealand focuses on the quality of teaching outcomes recognised through qualifications as a whole, and also on the systems and processes that support quality deliveries by providers.
新西蘭高等教育質(zhì)量保證主要側重在整體的教學質(zhì)量和各種保障質(zhì)量教學的體系和服務。
Only those tertiary qualifications and providers that are quality assured by a quality approval body are eligible for Government financial assistance. Quality assurance bodies decide whether providers and qualification developers meet appropriate standards.
只有那些質(zhì)量有所保證并得到相關認證的高等學歷和高等院校才有資格享受政府的財政支持。學歷的質(zhì)量達標與否取決于院校和文憑是否符合一系列標準。
NZQA also accredits industry training organisations to register workplace assessors.
NZQA同時也授權行業(yè)培訓組織為實習車間主管進行登記注冊。
A New Zealand Quality assured qualification is according to the NZQA web-site:
Ø a formally recognised award for educational or training attainment, where formal recognition means that the qualification is approved by a legislatively approved body. For vocational training this body is the New Zealand Qualifications Authority.
根據(jù)NZQA網(wǎng)站，新西蘭學歷質(zhì)量認可：
Ø 對于教育和培訓水平的正式認證意為其學歷文憑需經(jīng)過法定的評估組織所認證。對于職業(yè)教育而言這個評估組織就是新西蘭學歷評審委員會
In general, a qualification is defined as requiring full-time equivalent study of three months or greater (40 credits). Study time is an estimate of the typical time it takes a learner to achieve the learning outcomes of the qualification. This includes direct contact time with teachers as trainers, as well as time spent in self study, assignments and assessments.
通常，一個完整的文憑要求全日制學習少三個月以上，即相當于40個學分的課程。學習的時間是一個基本的評估標準，學生必須要花費一定的時間才能夠真正學習和領會文憑課程中所教授的內(nèi)容，具體包括與老師之間的溝通互動，自習，作業(yè)和論文等。
All qualifications – school and post-school qualifications must be assigned to one of the 10 levels of the New Zealand Register of Quality Assured Qualifications (New Zealand Register).
新西蘭所有院校提供的學歷文憑必須是在NZQA設立的10個學歷質(zhì)量認可等級中注冊的。
Classification Criteria
級別標準
The Register criteria set minimum credit and level requirements for each type of qualification. It is possible for a qualification to include credit achieved at levels above and below the level of which the qualification is awarded.
在學歷評估注冊標準中規(guī)定了每種學歷中學分和級別的低要求。
Level 1 to 4 Certificate level
Level 5 to 6 Diploma – Graduate Certificate
Level 7 Degrees – Bachelor
Level 8 Postgraduate Diplomas, Bachelor (Hons)
Level 9 Masters Degrees
Level 10 Doctorate Degree.
1級到4級 為證書級別
5級到6級 為?？莆膽{ – 高級證書級別
7級 為學士學位級別
8級 為研究生文憑 或者 榮譽學士 級別
9級 為碩士學位級別
10級 為博士學位級別
Vocational Education in New Zealand involves Certificates and diplomas
Pre-Trade Training Level 1 to 2
Certificates Level 3 and Level 4
Diplomas Level 5 and Level 6
職業(yè)教育在新西蘭一般提供證書和?？莆膽{兩種課程，
崗前培訓 （就業(yè)前培訓） 1級到2級
證書文憑 3級到4級
?？莆膽{ 5級到6級
Vocational Education in New Zealand refers to:
新西蘭職業(yè)教育涉及面
The New Zealand Standard of Classification of Occupations 1999 refers to a Major Group – Trades Workers.
新西蘭職業(yè)分類法案（1999）設計了一個主要的群體-- 產(chǎn)業(yè)技術工人。
This major group classifies those occupations in which the main tasks include the construction and finishing of buildings, the repairing and servicing of electrical, electronic and mechanical machinery, the making or precision instruments, painting and other trades work.
這個群體包括那些服務于建筑，電器維修和保養(yǎng)，電子機械設備，精密儀器制造，噴漆等等技術產(chǎn)業(yè)的工人。
Each major group contains sub-groups:
每個組群里面還有細分：
e.g.
Building Trades workers includes:
· Building frame and related trades workers
· Bricklayers
· Stone masons
· Carpenter and/or joiner
· Builder (including contractor)
· Boat Builder
比如：
建筑行業(yè)的工人具體包括：
Ÿ 房屋外型建造和相關行業(yè)工人
Ÿ 磚瓦工
Ÿ 石匠
Ÿ 木匠和精細木工
Ÿ 建筑商（包括承包商）
Ÿ 造船工人
Related to this group is the Building Finishers and related trades workers:
· Plasterers
· Glazier
· Plumber
· Gas Fitter
· Painter, Decorator and/or Paperhanger
· Spray painter
· Sign writer.
與此行業(yè)群體相關的是建筑整修工和其他：
· 泥水匠（石膏師）
· 玻璃工人
· 煤氣工
· 油漆工，裝修工和裱糊工人
· 噴漆工
·
A further sub-group is Electrician:
· Electricians
· Transport Electrician
· Appliance Electrician.
更加細分出的群體是電工：
· 電工
· 交運電工
· 電器電工
The second Major Group under Trades is Metal and Machinery Trades workers:
· Metal Mould Maker
· Coach Builder
· Sheet Metal Worker
· Boiler Maker
· Fitter & Welder
· Panel Beater.
工程技術下分的第二個主要群體是金屬和機械工種的工人：
· 金屬模具制造工人
· 建筑指導
· 金屬片制造工
· 鍋爐制造工
· 焊工
· 板金工
A further sub-group relates to Blacksmith and Toolmakers:
· Blacksmith
· Pattern Maker
· Tool and/or Die Maker
· Fitter and Turner
· Saw Doctor
· Machinery Mechanic
· Motor Mechanic
· Aircraft Engine Mechanic
· Heating Ventilation and Refrigeration Mechanic
· Small Engine Mechanic
· Mechanical Products Inspector and Tester.
與鐵匠和模具制造工人密切相關的組群是：
· 鐵匠
· 模具工
· 金屬印模制造工
· FITTER AND TURNER
· 磨鋸工
· 機工
· 摩托技師
· 飛行器工程技師
· 熱通風及制冷技師
· 小型發(fā)動機機師
· 機械產(chǎn)品檢測人員
Another sub-group relates to Electrical and Electronic Instrument Mechanics and Fitters:
· Electrical Fitter
· Fire Alarm Technician
· Electronics Service
· Avionics Mechanic
· Radio and Television Repairer.
另外一個與電子電氣機械設備安裝維修和調(diào)試工作相關的工種群體是：
· 電氣。。。
· 失火報警器技工
· 電器維修
· 航空電子設備技師
· 電臺電視維修師
Sub-group Precision Instrument Makers and Related Workers:
· Industrial Precision Instrument Maker and Repairer
精密儀器制造的相關工種：
· 工業(yè)精密一起制造和維修
The Waikato Institute of Technology (Wintec) under its School of Trades, Construction and Engineering offers a wide range of the above training, as well as horticulture, agriculture, floristry, hospitality and catering, health and beauty and hairdressing.
Wintec下設的技術學院提供幾乎全部上述課程，另外還有園藝，農(nóng)業(yè)，花卉，酒店管理與服務，健康和美容美發(fā)等其他專業(yè)學科。
The main pedagogical method of Vocational Education in New Zealand is Competency-Based Education and Training.
新西蘭職業(yè)教育的教學方法主要以注重培養(yǎng)學生工作能力為宗旨
Competency based training was made popular (Kirka 1998) in the US in the 70s through the performance based vocational teacher education involvement. The National Vocational Qualification NVQs system in England and Wales (1986) and the New Zealand National Qualifications Framework are examples of nationwide adoption of competency based standards. In New Zealand the adoption of competency based standards as a means of assessment were advanced by a strong political impetus. This competency assessment approach is believed to be the way to prepare a workforce to participate successfully in a competitive global economy.
上個世紀70年代，美國的職業(yè)教育就強調(diào)以實踐技能為教育基礎，要求從事職業(yè)培訓教育的老師通過自己的言傳身教將實際工作技能傳授給學生。 在英格蘭和威爾士（1986）以及新西蘭也采用國家職業(yè)教育學歷評估體系為能力培養(yǎng)為基礎的職業(yè)教育設立了的審核標準。 在新西蘭強大的政治推動力推進了這一標準的發(fā)展。注重能力培養(yǎng)，并以此為審核評估職業(yè)教育質(zhì)量的方式被認為是培養(yǎng)能成功適應全球經(jīng)濟競爭的勞動力大軍的可行之路。
Competency Based Education Training is seen as a way to improve the relationship between education/training and workplace requirements. It is individualised emphasises outcomes (i.e. what individuals can and can’t do) and allows flexible pathways for achieving the outcomes. It is designed to make it as clear as possible what is required to be achieved and what standard is to be used to measure achievement i.e. competence. The student is assessed as competent or not yet competent rather than the behaviouralistic method of achievement of pass or fail. Chappell (1996) champions this method as he sees it as overcoming the divide between hands and minds, between theory and practice, and vocational and general education.
側重技能培訓的技術教育也可以很好的提升職業(yè)教育和勞動力市場需求之間的關系。靈活實用的學習方式和途徑讓教育產(chǎn)生的成果更加個性化，這樣的方式讓勞動力市場的就業(yè)需求更加明確，即注重工作中的實際操作能力。評估學生的學習情況主要看能否勝任實際工作，而不是單單采用考試能否通過這樣的標準。 Chappell(1996) 非常擁護這樣的教學和評估方式，因為這樣的方式克服了腦力勞動和體力勞工完全分離的弊端，改善了教育中理論和實踐脫節(jié)的問題，消除了職業(yè)教育低于一般教育的理解誤區(qū)。
Does a Competency Based Education Training for Vocational Education give Employers what they want?
注重能力培養(yǎng)的職業(yè)教育和培訓能夠真正及雇主之所需嗎？
In order for Competency Based standards to meet the curriculum requirements of industry depends on the credibility the standards have for industry. Thus it is imperative for their acceptability that they do represent the industry requirements. In New Zealand the answer to this has been the establishment of Industry Training Organisations ITOs who are in fact the standards-setting bodies and should be employer led.
基于行業(yè)標準的可靠性，能力為基礎的職業(yè)教育培養(yǎng)的評估標準才能達到行業(yè)對于勞動力的要求，因為產(chǎn)業(yè)對于勞工力的可接受性很關鍵，因為他們體現(xiàn)了行業(yè)對工人的需求標準。新西蘭的行業(yè)培訓組織（ITOs）就此設立了一系列被行業(yè)廣泛承認和應用的勞動力接受（適用性）標準。
Competency Based Education Training whilst adopted in New Zealand and fast becoming the accepted method for assessment has both its proponents and its opponents. Proponents claim that Competency Based Education Training allows for a learning society where education is an empowering tool for economic independence. Opponents (Ecclestone 1997) claim that knowledge is too narrowly defined in terms of employer needs, and rather than being a framework, the competency steps are merely a prescription through which educational funding is channelled, by which tutors are benchmarked and assessed, and it ultimately decides how workers progression and pay are determined. (Hodkinson and Issit 1995; MulCathy 1996).
當然對于這樣以注重能力和技能培養(yǎng)為本的教學評估方式也是有人支持有人反對。有些人認為能力為本的職業(yè)教育可以讓教育變成推動經(jīng)濟獨立與發(fā)展的有效工具。反對的人（Ecclestone, 1997）則認為這樣以來知識就從某種意義上講狹隘的變成了只為滿足雇主要求而產(chǎn)生的東西，而不是一個宏觀上的概念。所謂能力培養(yǎng)也不過是教育基金通過
However, for the New Zealand situation Competency Based Education Training clearly assists vocational education in that it allows for a mixture of “on-job” training coupled with practical standard based assessment and “off-job” theoretical education undertaken to reinforce or explain the required theoretical knowledge necessary for students/apprentices, through which they can engage in an increasingly and technological, global workplace.
然而就目前新西蘭的現(xiàn)狀來看，能力為本的教育和培養(yǎng)方針很明確的指導著職業(yè)教育和培訓 ，它采用有實踐標準為評估基礎的在職培訓和理論與實踐相結合的脫產(chǎn)學習兩種方式的結合來培養(yǎng)適應服務于現(xiàn)代化，全球化的技術行業(yè)的勞動者。
Workplace Learning and Vocational Education
車間實習和職業(yè)教育
“On-job” components of Vocational Education.
職業(yè)教育的在職培訓部分
Research on how people learn in the workplace demonstrates that what is taking place is constructivist or situated learning. In reality through cognitive apprenticeship. (Karker 1998) Studies of apprentices in several trades showed that what helped students learn the most especially with ill-defined, complex or risky situations was having someone model how to understand and deal with the situations.
通過在幾個工程技術領域里對學徒的研究表明實習可以幫助他們在混亂，復雜甚至有些危險因素的環(huán)境中完善知識和技能，并提升他們理解和處理各種問題的能力。
Hart-Landresberg Brainger and Reder (1992) studied how hospital workers “l(fā)earn the ropes”. It showed that learning was concurrent with the doing. With students reflecting on their actions – the doing – in order to interpret and construct the knowledge that they require.
Hart-Landresberg Brainger and Reder (1992) 致力于研究醫(yī)務工作者如何學習捆綁。研究顯示學與做應當是并行的，實際操作可以更好的幫助學習者完善和矯正自己的理論知識。
The philosophy of “on-job” training according to Billet (1994b) concludes that in the informal learning setting of the workplace, effective learning comes from learners’ engagement in authentic activities guided by experts – A master plumber, or a master builder, or an A grade mechanic – and interacting with other learners. So although construction of understanding is unique to each individual it is heavily influenced by the workplace culture of practice. For example in a plumbing setting the individual apprentice will learn “hand skills” but these are heavily influenced by the particular workplace culture. If the workplace places emphasis on risk mitigation – occupation Health and Safety – cleanliness and tidiness – Public Health and ensuring the technical specifications as determined by the manufacture carefully interpreted, then those values will be incorporated into the students learning.
根據(jù)Billet (1994b)的結論，在職培訓是一種非正式的學習過程，有效的學習是在專業(yè)人員的技術指導之下進行實踐操作，并與其他學習者進行交流和互動。因此對每一個學習者對知識和工作的理解是深受整個實習操作車間的文化氛圍影響的。例如，在管道鋪設車間，每一個學徒都將學習一些“手工技術”，如果整個實習車間比較注重工作中危險因素的防范 – 職業(yè)健康和安全 – 工作環(huán)境的清潔整齊 – 公共健康以及仔細閱讀產(chǎn)品說明書并在工作過程中嚴格達到技術要求，那么這些有價值的理念就會被灌輸?shù)綄W徒將來的工作中。
New Zealand trainers have found that “On-job” apprentices value direct instruction especially for information that they were unlikely to learn without it being made explicit. However, the quality of instruction is important to them. They want it to help them understand why things have to be done and they want it to be at their level, not “talking down to them” (Billet 1994b).
新西蘭的培訓人員發(fā)現(xiàn)“在職”學徒重視那些工作須知和說明，尤其是那些不可能學到或者被明確教授過的信息。因此培訓人員就需要幫助受訓者理解這些內(nèi)容，并重視這樣的信息。
“On-job” training has the advantage of ensuring that activity ( repeated actions is a key factor in the apprentices’ knowledge construction) and participation in everyday work activities “forces” learners to access higher order procedural and propositional knowledge. By ensuring actions are repeated in real workplaces it ensures that this experience adds to the apprentices’ index of knowledge, and active encouragement in active problem solving reinforces learning. In this type of learning – constructivist or situated learning, reinforcement is the internal satisfaction that comes from understanding new activities i.e. the apprentice is able to adapt existing knowledge structures to the new task and build on that knowledge to shape a greater more complex understanding.
在職培訓也有很多優(yōu)勢，受訓工人重復一些操作對他們自身的知識構成幫助很大，而且在每天工作過程中感受工作的壓力和強度有助于他們達到更高的工作水平。而且重復工作可以讓受訓工人把所學知識歸納成系統(tǒng)并加強處理問題的能力，從而進一步強化知識的掌握。在這樣系統(tǒng)化的學習過程中學徒們可以持續(xù)學習實踐并加強自己的能力，很多學徒就可以把現(xiàn)存知識運用到新的工作中，并進而理解和完善所學的知識。
To summarise the “on-job” workplace component of apprenticeship training it can be seen that it has a number of strengths as a learning environment (Billet 1996):
1. Authentic – real, goal-directed activities. Apprentices feel they are doing something;
2. Access to guidance. Two fold – both close assistance from experts and “distant” observing and listening to the other workers in the workplace and the way the physical environment is set out;
3. Everyday problem solving which adds to the apprentices index of knowledge; and
4. Intrinsic reinforcement.
總結學徒在職培訓這種方式可以有以下幾方面的優(yōu)點：
1． 真正目標明確的活動。學徒能夠身臨其境的進行實踐操作。
2． 可以在實踐中接受行業(yè)專門培訓人員的指導
3． 每一天都可以學習解決工作中出現(xiàn)的問題
4． 內(nèi)在加強
Billet (1996) acknowledges that there are also limitations to workplace settings.
1. Apprentices may construct inappropriate knowledge, especially if the “expert” does not engage appropriately with the apprentice or teaches inaccurate methods or “out of date” practices, especially in relation to legislative requirements.
2. Covert inappropriate knowledge may also be constructed and interspersed with appropriate learning (e.g. racist or sexist attitudes, unsafe workplaces).
3. Lack of sufficient or more challenging authentic activities i.e. an employer may be very specialised and only allow the apprentice experience in a narrow range of the required activities for a qualification . a plumber may not lay very many drains but only install hat water cylinders.
4. Reluctance of experts to participate or restrictions on their assistance – these are often related to employees’ sheer lack of sufficient time to spend with apprentices and economic pressures to push apprentices to carry out work that they may have not had sufficient experience in to really construct their knowledge base.
同時這樣的方式也有幾方面的問題：
1． 學徒可能接受了一些不是很正確的知識，尤其當“專家”的指點不得當，或者老師們的過時落伍的工作及教學方式，尤其是一些與法律條文或要求相關的知識點上。
2． 由于種族主義，性別歧視，不安全的工作環(huán)境等因素引起的知識上的誤導。
3． 缺乏有效或者更富挑戰(zhàn)性的活動，比如雇主可能只強調(diào)學徒具有單一能力，管道工可能只被要求安裝熱水管而沒有被要求鋪設所有下水管道
4． 由于時間因素，或者經(jīng)濟壓力等原因，學徒在有限的學習時間里沒有得到充足的實踐訓練和知識結構的培養(yǎng)。
“Off-job” Training
脫產(chǎn)培訓
“Off-job” training is completed in an accredited learning institution. This is a mix of classroom theory based learning and workshop practical learning to consolidate the “on-job” learning, to correct any inappropriate learning and to ensure all experiential activities are covered off by the apprentice.
“Off-job” training aims for apprentices to cover off “required underpinning theoretical knowledge”. This is usually done in a classroom with a tutorial/lecturing teaching practice, the most effective being when the class is less than 20.
This theory is followed up with practical classes featuring demonstrations and experiential activity in a “work shop” situation. The aim is for apprentices to organise information and relate it to their existing knowledge. Either adding to it or correcting their body of knowledge.
脫產(chǎn)培訓是指在學的過程中完善技能的學習方式，它是課堂理論知識學習和車間實習相結合，同時她也很好的鞏固了在職學習和培訓的內(nèi)容。
脫產(chǎn)培訓旨在幫助學徒們在實際操作中更好的理解和運用所學的知識，這樣的高效率輔導課和培訓一般不超過20節(jié)，但是內(nèi)容緊湊充實。
理論教育也被貫穿于實踐之中，學生們會在實習車間和工作基地將理論運用于實際工作，這讓作為學徒的受訓者能夠?qū)⒗碚撆c實踐很好的結合起來，更好的在時間中不斷總結創(chuàng)新。
Barriers to learning on “off job”
脫產(chǎn)培訓面臨的挑戰(zhàn)
Barriers on block courses relate to time constraints, administrative procedures, community pressures (accountability demands, standardized testing) (Parrell 1996).
However, the biggest block for effective use of time and tutorial expertise is the lack of preparation by apprentices for the block course.
Apprentices when they sign their apprenticeship contract, sign up to being responsible for learning and undertaking the study required to be done in their own time.
Or they may have needed to have had a wider experience than their employer had been able to give them i.e. A Block course may be covering five specific learning activities – of the 20 apprentice only 5 may have already experienced all those five activities, the other 15 a mixture of them. Also, only about 10 of the 20 may have completed the Distance Learning Material required of them. Hence the tutor of the block course has to take 2 or 3 of the 10 days allocated to bring all students up to the required standard before they can start on the learning activities required for the “block course”.
These barriers to effective learning can be mitigated by employers ensuring their apprentice has completed the Distance Learning Material and only signing it off after checking appropriate knowledge.
Another way around the barrier of insufficient skill experience is by viewing the apprenticeship required skills and learning activities holistically by the industry rather than just the employer. Hence the apprentice may be placed in three or four workplaces throughout their apprenticeship training to ensure appropriate exposure and knowledge acquisition is obtained over the whole range of required knowledge.
Apprentices can then build up their “signed off” portfolio of applied work through a variety of workplace situations.
短期課程的開設涉及到時間約束，行政管理程序，社區(qū)需求的壓力等（例如：會計人員的需求，工作水平基本標準的測試）（Parrell, 1996）
然而，不能更有效的安排時間和指導專家的障礙是學徒缺乏對短期課程的學習準備工作。
當學徒們簽署了確定他們的學徒身份的合同書，他們在合同書中同意他們將有責任去學習各種工作經(jīng)驗， 并且同意用他們的業(yè)余時間來學習雇主所要求的知識。.
或者他們也許需要掌握比雇主教授他們的更多的工作經(jīng)驗等等。一個短期課程也許包含了5個特殊的學習內(nèi)容---20 名學徒中也許只有5名學徒已經(jīng)體驗過這種工作經(jīng)驗，而其他15名學徒只體驗了其中的部分。又或者，他們當中的只有10名學徒已經(jīng)完成他們工作所要求的遠程教育的教材。因此，作為該短期課程的導師在開始教授“短期課程”之前不得不抽出2-3天的時間將所有的學員都達到所要求的基本標準水平。
如果雇主能保證他們的學徒已經(jīng)完成了遠程教育教材，并在能保證學徒已經(jīng)具備了正確的知識后才簽署合同，短期課程教育才可以避免以上類似的障礙。
另一個缺乏技術經(jīng)驗的障礙是學徒所需要的整體的技術和學習內(nèi)容來自于整個行業(yè)而不是某個雇主。因此，學徒們在他們的學徒生涯期間將被派到3或4個工作環(huán)境中去接受培訓， 以保證他們能準確掌握所要求的各種知識。
Summary
總結
The New Zealand Vocation Education in summary is based around a National Qualifications framework – the Register which is in the main controlled by ITO’s who represent industry needs for their particular workforce. They formulate National Certificates and National Diplomas based on a unit standard curriculum which utilises competency based assessment. The delivery methodology includes a mixture of “on-job” and “off-job” experiential/constructivist pedology and is quality assured by an independent natural body – the NZQA.
In New Zealand vocational education has over the past 8 years received increased levels of state investment on the understanding that VET is an important way to improve a nation’s economic performance (Strathdee 2003).
The introduction of the “Modern Apprenticeship Scheme”, and the Gateway Programme, which is designed to facilitate school and business institutions are aimed at “Growing an Innovative New Zealand Framework” latterly called the Innovation Framework which is part of a broader reform agenda designed to transform New Zealand’s economy by “growing more talent”. Underpinning the Innovations Framework is the view that those displaced by globalisation, the individual, new technology and free-market reforms were not benefiting from any associated economic prosperity. In order for them to do so increased numbers of tertiary places were made available. It was seen as an important investment in human capital to increase the trainees in vocational education. In this way New Zealand could rapidly up skill itself to provide the necessary skills it requires to participate in a growing technical global economy.
總而言之，新西蘭職業(yè)技術教育基于一個的學歷證書的框架，--注冊者將主要受ITO’s （國家行業(yè)培訓委員會）的嚴格控制， ITO’s 代表了行業(yè)對特殊勞動力的需求，他們在標準單位課程的基礎上制定了證書和文憑，這種標準單位課程運用了以能力為基礎的評估方法。該證書的頒發(fā)包括了在職和脫產(chǎn)的學習經(jīng)驗，并且該證書受機構NZQA新西蘭國家學歷評估委員會認可。
新西蘭政府在過去8年里提高了對新西蘭的職業(yè)技術教育的投資，因為國家已經(jīng)意識到職業(yè)技術培訓對整個國家的經(jīng)濟建設至關重要(Strathdee 2003)。
“現(xiàn)代學徒計劃”的說明和入門課程是為了促進學校和商業(yè)學院為實現(xiàn)“發(fā)展一個創(chuàng)新的新西蘭式的教育框架”的目標所設計的，該目標后來被稱為創(chuàng)新框架，被作為更廣泛的改革議程的一部分， 發(fā)展更多地精英來更好的改變新西蘭經(jīng)濟。
創(chuàng)新框架的提倡是因為那些被全球化，個人化，新科技和自由貿(mào)易所代替的改革并沒有從相關的經(jīng)濟繁榮中受益。增加第三教育基地可以幫助實現(xiàn)這個目標。增加職業(yè)教育培訓的學員被視為是一項重要的人力資源的投資。只有這樣，新西蘭才能迅速的提高自身的技術能力，以投身到一個迅速發(fā)展的全球性科技化的經(jīng)濟當中去。