話語分析（discourse analysis）的概念早由美國語言學(xué)家Zellig Harris于1952年提出，自20世紀(jì)60年代以來日益受到國際語言學(xué)界的高度重視。話語分析是指將一個具有語用和語義連貫的語篇看作一個意義單位，考慮到語境、文化、社會認(rèn)知等方面的因素，對其內(nèi)在的語法結(jié)構(gòu)、邏輯聯(lián)系、銜接手段進(jìn)行*和分析的語言研究方法。話語分析是英語閱讀教學(xué)中的重要手段，它能夠結(jié)合語境、篇章結(jié)構(gòu)、體裁特征等因素引導(dǎo)學(xué)生以較快的速度理解和掌握英語文章的主要內(nèi)容，獲取文章的大信息量。而在語言測試領(lǐng)域，通過話語分析把握文章中出現(xiàn)的詞匯銜接手段、信息重心及文章層次結(jié)構(gòu)對于閱讀答題起著非常關(guān)鍵的作用。在雅思閱讀考試中，話語分析的能力也是劍橋考試官方要考查的閱讀技能之一。而且根據(jù)國際語言學(xué)和測試學(xué)的發(fā)展趨勢，可以預(yù)期話語分析將會成為雅思閱讀命題重要的設(shè)計(jì)思想和模式。本文就雅思閱讀中話語分析的功能作以下兩個方面的簡要論述。
一．語篇中句際、段際之間的銜接和連貫分析及相關(guān)答題思路。
銜接（cohesion）和連貫(coherence)是篇章語言學(xué)（text linguistics）研究中的兩個基本概念，也是話語分析的重要課題。語篇無論是口頭表達(dá)還是書面表達(dá)，都必須銜接合理，符合邏輯，語義連貫。而語篇的連貫是依靠語篇銜接關(guān)系建立起來的。實(shí)現(xiàn)語篇連貫的銜接機(jī)制有顯性（explicit cohesive device）和隱性（implicit cohesive device）之分，其中顯性銜接是實(shí)現(xiàn)語篇連貫的主要手段，其具體方法包括：語法機(jī)制（grammatical device），詞匯銜接（lexical cohesion）和邏輯聯(lián)系語（logical connector）。學(xué)術(shù)類雅思閱讀文章的特點(diǎn)之一是結(jié)構(gòu)嚴(yán)謹(jǐn)，邏輯性強(qiáng)，論述層次清晰，其語篇的連貫多由顯性銜接機(jī)制來完成。具體的顯性銜接手段包括：指稱（reference），替代（substitution），省略（ellipsis），連接（conjunction），詞匯銜接（lexical cohesion），時間關(guān)聯(lián)（time relator），地點(diǎn)關(guān)聯(lián)（place relator），時和體（tense and aspect），平行結(jié)構(gòu)（parallel construction）等。雅思閱讀文章中語義銜接手段運(yùn)用較多的是連接，指稱，詞匯銜接和平行結(jié)構(gòu)。連接是指由連接成分（如邏輯關(guān)系詞）把兩個或多個句子，或者段落連接起來的現(xiàn)象。指稱是指一個項(xiàng)目的意義要靠另一個項(xiàng)目來解釋的現(xiàn)象。詞匯銜接是指由詞匯之間的語義關(guān)系（包括重現(xiàn)、同/近義、反義、上下義、整體部分義）以及同一語義場的詞匯搭配所建立起來的銜接關(guān)系。平行結(jié)構(gòu)是指相同類型的語句結(jié)構(gòu)形成的銜接關(guān)系。雅思閱讀考試直觀上是主要考查對具體細(xì)節(jié)信息的把握，其實(shí)在命題設(shè)計(jì)上常常體現(xiàn)出篇章語言、功能語法等當(dāng)代語言學(xué)研究的主要成果，語篇連貫的銜接機(jī)制就是雅思閱讀一個主要的語言知識考查范疇，體現(xiàn)在文章的語義銜接位置通常都會設(shè)有考點(diǎn)。以下就詞匯銜接，平行結(jié)構(gòu)，以及指稱與考點(diǎn)的聯(lián)系各舉一例進(jìn)行說明。
例一．詞匯銜接（劍橋6/Test1/Reading Passage3）
Life for the descendants of the Thule people is still harsh. Nunavut is 1.9 million square kilometers of rock and ice, and a handful of islands around the North Pole. It’s currently home to 2,500 people, all but a handful of them indigenous Inuit. Over the past 40 years, most have abandoned their nomadic ways and settled in the territory’s 28 isolated communities, but they still rely heavily on nature to provide food and clothing. Provisions available in local shops have to be flown into Nunavut on one of the most costly air networks in the world, or brought by supply ship during the few ice-free weeks of summer. It would cost a family around ￡7,000 a year to replace meat they obtained themselves through hunting with imported meat. Economic opportunities are scarce, and for many people state benefits are their only income.
這是一道List of Headings題，要求在選項(xiàng)中找出能表達(dá)以上這段文字主題的段落標(biāo)題。List of Headings題解題的原則就是找出段落的主題句，然后與標(biāo)題選項(xiàng)一一對應(yīng)，確定正確答案。但是在實(shí)際解題過程中，因?yàn)閲?yán)格的時間限制，一般都不會去確定主題句，而是直接以有可能成為主題句的段落的首、次、中、尾四個句子分別與標(biāo)題選項(xiàng)一一對應(yīng)來確定正確答案。但是在段落沒有主題句的情況下，利用這個方法就無法確定正確選項(xiàng)。必須根據(jù)段落中的其它線索來答題。以上這個段落雖然沒有主題句，但是在其行文中有非常明顯的詞匯銜接關(guān)系。文中的food and clothing，provisions，supply，meat，benefits是同一語義場（生活的供給）的詞匯同現(xiàn)，與選項(xiàng)iii的essential supplies對應(yīng)。而與該組詞緊密相連的provide，available，brought，obtained則是一組近義詞，其引導(dǎo)的信息與選項(xiàng)iii的alternative sources對應(yīng)。因此這段文字是通過同一語義場的詞匯同現(xiàn)和近義詞兩種詞匯銜接手段來實(shí)現(xiàn)句際之間的銜接，從而形成了意義上的連貫性，并構(gòu)成了與標(biāo)題選項(xiàng)iii相對應(yīng)的段落主題。
例二．平行結(jié)構(gòu)（劍橋5/Test1/Reading Passage2）
Prior to carrying out the experiment, Milgram explained his idea to a group of 39 psychiatrists and asked them to predict the average percentage of people in an ordinary population who would be willing to administer the highest shock level of 450 volts. The overwhelming consensus was that virtually all the teacher-subjects would refuse to obey the experimenter. The psychiatrists felt that ‘most subjects would not go beyond 150 volts’ and they further anticipated that only four per cent would go up to 300 volts. Furthermore, they thought that only a lunatic fringe of about one in 1,000 would give the highest shock of 450 volts. What were the actual results? Well, over 60 per cent of the teacher-subjects continued to obey Milgram up to the 450-volt limit!
Q22. Before the experiment took place the psychiatrists
A. believed that a shock of 150 volts was too dangerous.
B. failed to agree on how the teacher-subjects would respond to instructions.
C. underestimated the teacher-subjects’ willingness to comply with experimental procedure.
D. thought that many of the teacher-subjects would administer a shock of 450 volts.
這是一道單選題，從命題的測試目的角度來看，是觀點(diǎn)、態(tài)度分析類的題目。題干各個選項(xiàng)均含有表示觀點(diǎn)、態(tài)度的提示詞（believed/agree on/underestimated/thought）。與此題相對應(yīng)的原文段落在語義銜接上是通過近義詞和平行的及物性結(jié)構(gòu)來實(shí)現(xiàn)，即：predict/felt that/anticipated that/thought that。其形成的連貫語義（即普遍認(rèn)為試驗(yàn)的主體不會使用高電壓）為答案的引出作了重要的鋪陳。原文接著以提問的方式給出了一個反面的結(jié)果，對應(yīng)選項(xiàng)C的表示負(fù)向意義的觀點(diǎn)態(tài)度提示詞underestimated所引導(dǎo)的內(nèi)容。與此相類似的平行結(jié)構(gòu)的語義銜接在劍橋真題文章中多次出現(xiàn)，并且基本上都設(shè)有考點(diǎn)，反映了命題者對把握語義銜接和連貫的閱讀能力的重視。
例三．指稱（劍橋5/Test1/Reading Passage2）
One’s first inclination might be to argue that there must be some sort of built-in animal aggression instinct that was activated by the experiment, and that Milgram’s teacher-subjects were just following a genetic need to discharge this pent-up primal urge onto the pupil by administering the electrical shock. A modern hard-core sociobiologist might even go so far as to claim that this aggressive instinct evolved as an advantageous trait, having been of survival value to our ancestors in their struggle against the hardships of life on the plains and in the caves.
Q24. Some people may believe that the teacher-subjects’ behavior could be explained as a positive survival mechanism.
這是一道對錯無判斷題，以題干中的positive和 survival mechanism作為定位詞，分別對應(yīng)原文的“this aggressive instinct evolved as an advantageous trait, having been of survival value ”這一句中的advantageous 和survival value，因此可以判定題干的核心意思和原文的對應(yīng)信息是同義轉(zhuǎn)述。但是我們還需要確定題干中的teacher-subjects’ behavior和原文的對比信息this aggressive instinct在語義上是否對等。而要確定這一點(diǎn)，就必須要理解在原文中“this aggressive instinct”正是借助指稱的銜接手段指代上文中的關(guān)于“teacher-subjects’ behavior”的具體描述，即：“teacher-subjects were just following a genetic need to discharge this pent-up primal urge onto the pupil by administering the electrical shock”。據(jù)此才可以判定題干的意思與原文完全一致，答案應(yīng)為TRUE。
一．語篇中句際、段際之間的銜接和連貫分析及相關(guān)答題思路。
銜接（cohesion）和連貫(coherence)是篇章語言學(xué)（text linguistics）研究中的兩個基本概念，也是話語分析的重要課題。語篇無論是口頭表達(dá)還是書面表達(dá)，都必須銜接合理，符合邏輯，語義連貫。而語篇的連貫是依靠語篇銜接關(guān)系建立起來的。實(shí)現(xiàn)語篇連貫的銜接機(jī)制有顯性（explicit cohesive device）和隱性（implicit cohesive device）之分，其中顯性銜接是實(shí)現(xiàn)語篇連貫的主要手段，其具體方法包括：語法機(jī)制（grammatical device），詞匯銜接（lexical cohesion）和邏輯聯(lián)系語（logical connector）。學(xué)術(shù)類雅思閱讀文章的特點(diǎn)之一是結(jié)構(gòu)嚴(yán)謹(jǐn)，邏輯性強(qiáng)，論述層次清晰，其語篇的連貫多由顯性銜接機(jī)制來完成。具體的顯性銜接手段包括：指稱（reference），替代（substitution），省略（ellipsis），連接（conjunction），詞匯銜接（lexical cohesion），時間關(guān)聯(lián)（time relator），地點(diǎn)關(guān)聯(lián)（place relator），時和體（tense and aspect），平行結(jié)構(gòu)（parallel construction）等。雅思閱讀文章中語義銜接手段運(yùn)用較多的是連接，指稱，詞匯銜接和平行結(jié)構(gòu)。連接是指由連接成分（如邏輯關(guān)系詞）把兩個或多個句子，或者段落連接起來的現(xiàn)象。指稱是指一個項(xiàng)目的意義要靠另一個項(xiàng)目來解釋的現(xiàn)象。詞匯銜接是指由詞匯之間的語義關(guān)系（包括重現(xiàn)、同/近義、反義、上下義、整體部分義）以及同一語義場的詞匯搭配所建立起來的銜接關(guān)系。平行結(jié)構(gòu)是指相同類型的語句結(jié)構(gòu)形成的銜接關(guān)系。雅思閱讀考試直觀上是主要考查對具體細(xì)節(jié)信息的把握，其實(shí)在命題設(shè)計(jì)上常常體現(xiàn)出篇章語言、功能語法等當(dāng)代語言學(xué)研究的主要成果，語篇連貫的銜接機(jī)制就是雅思閱讀一個主要的語言知識考查范疇，體現(xiàn)在文章的語義銜接位置通常都會設(shè)有考點(diǎn)。以下就詞匯銜接，平行結(jié)構(gòu)，以及指稱與考點(diǎn)的聯(lián)系各舉一例進(jìn)行說明。
例一．詞匯銜接（劍橋6/Test1/Reading Passage3）
Life for the descendants of the Thule people is still harsh. Nunavut is 1.9 million square kilometers of rock and ice, and a handful of islands around the North Pole. It’s currently home to 2,500 people, all but a handful of them indigenous Inuit. Over the past 40 years, most have abandoned their nomadic ways and settled in the territory’s 28 isolated communities, but they still rely heavily on nature to provide food and clothing. Provisions available in local shops have to be flown into Nunavut on one of the most costly air networks in the world, or brought by supply ship during the few ice-free weeks of summer. It would cost a family around ￡7,000 a year to replace meat they obtained themselves through hunting with imported meat. Economic opportunities are scarce, and for many people state benefits are their only income.
這是一道List of Headings題，要求在選項(xiàng)中找出能表達(dá)以上這段文字主題的段落標(biāo)題。List of Headings題解題的原則就是找出段落的主題句，然后與標(biāo)題選項(xiàng)一一對應(yīng)，確定正確答案。但是在實(shí)際解題過程中，因?yàn)閲?yán)格的時間限制，一般都不會去確定主題句，而是直接以有可能成為主題句的段落的首、次、中、尾四個句子分別與標(biāo)題選項(xiàng)一一對應(yīng)來確定正確答案。但是在段落沒有主題句的情況下，利用這個方法就無法確定正確選項(xiàng)。必須根據(jù)段落中的其它線索來答題。以上這個段落雖然沒有主題句，但是在其行文中有非常明顯的詞匯銜接關(guān)系。文中的food and clothing，provisions，supply，meat，benefits是同一語義場（生活的供給）的詞匯同現(xiàn)，與選項(xiàng)iii的essential supplies對應(yīng)。而與該組詞緊密相連的provide，available，brought，obtained則是一組近義詞，其引導(dǎo)的信息與選項(xiàng)iii的alternative sources對應(yīng)。因此這段文字是通過同一語義場的詞匯同現(xiàn)和近義詞兩種詞匯銜接手段來實(shí)現(xiàn)句際之間的銜接，從而形成了意義上的連貫性，并構(gòu)成了與標(biāo)題選項(xiàng)iii相對應(yīng)的段落主題。
例二．平行結(jié)構(gòu)（劍橋5/Test1/Reading Passage2）
Prior to carrying out the experiment, Milgram explained his idea to a group of 39 psychiatrists and asked them to predict the average percentage of people in an ordinary population who would be willing to administer the highest shock level of 450 volts. The overwhelming consensus was that virtually all the teacher-subjects would refuse to obey the experimenter. The psychiatrists felt that ‘most subjects would not go beyond 150 volts’ and they further anticipated that only four per cent would go up to 300 volts. Furthermore, they thought that only a lunatic fringe of about one in 1,000 would give the highest shock of 450 volts. What were the actual results? Well, over 60 per cent of the teacher-subjects continued to obey Milgram up to the 450-volt limit!
Q22. Before the experiment took place the psychiatrists
A. believed that a shock of 150 volts was too dangerous.
B. failed to agree on how the teacher-subjects would respond to instructions.
C. underestimated the teacher-subjects’ willingness to comply with experimental procedure.
D. thought that many of the teacher-subjects would administer a shock of 450 volts.
這是一道單選題，從命題的測試目的角度來看，是觀點(diǎn)、態(tài)度分析類的題目。題干各個選項(xiàng)均含有表示觀點(diǎn)、態(tài)度的提示詞（believed/agree on/underestimated/thought）。與此題相對應(yīng)的原文段落在語義銜接上是通過近義詞和平行的及物性結(jié)構(gòu)來實(shí)現(xiàn)，即：predict/felt that/anticipated that/thought that。其形成的連貫語義（即普遍認(rèn)為試驗(yàn)的主體不會使用高電壓）為答案的引出作了重要的鋪陳。原文接著以提問的方式給出了一個反面的結(jié)果，對應(yīng)選項(xiàng)C的表示負(fù)向意義的觀點(diǎn)態(tài)度提示詞underestimated所引導(dǎo)的內(nèi)容。與此相類似的平行結(jié)構(gòu)的語義銜接在劍橋真題文章中多次出現(xiàn)，并且基本上都設(shè)有考點(diǎn)，反映了命題者對把握語義銜接和連貫的閱讀能力的重視。
例三．指稱（劍橋5/Test1/Reading Passage2）
One’s first inclination might be to argue that there must be some sort of built-in animal aggression instinct that was activated by the experiment, and that Milgram’s teacher-subjects were just following a genetic need to discharge this pent-up primal urge onto the pupil by administering the electrical shock. A modern hard-core sociobiologist might even go so far as to claim that this aggressive instinct evolved as an advantageous trait, having been of survival value to our ancestors in their struggle against the hardships of life on the plains and in the caves.
Q24. Some people may believe that the teacher-subjects’ behavior could be explained as a positive survival mechanism.
這是一道對錯無判斷題，以題干中的positive和 survival mechanism作為定位詞，分別對應(yīng)原文的“this aggressive instinct evolved as an advantageous trait, having been of survival value ”這一句中的advantageous 和survival value，因此可以判定題干的核心意思和原文的對應(yīng)信息是同義轉(zhuǎn)述。但是我們還需要確定題干中的teacher-subjects’ behavior和原文的對比信息this aggressive instinct在語義上是否對等。而要確定這一點(diǎn)，就必須要理解在原文中“this aggressive instinct”正是借助指稱的銜接手段指代上文中的關(guān)于“teacher-subjects’ behavior”的具體描述，即：“teacher-subjects were just following a genetic need to discharge this pent-up primal urge onto the pupil by administering the electrical shock”。據(jù)此才可以判定題干的意思與原文完全一致，答案應(yīng)為TRUE。