Transition to the Modern Age (1455-1688)
向現(xiàn)代英國的過渡
I.Transition to the Modern Age (1455-1485)
向現(xiàn)代英國的過渡(1455年-1485年)
The Wars of Rose
玫瑰戰(zhàn)爭
The name Wars of the Roses was refer to the battles between the House of Lancaster, symbolized by the read rose, and that of York, symbolized by the white, from 1455 to 1485. Henry Tudor, descendant of Duke of Lancaster won victory at Bosworth Fireld in 1485 and put ht country under the rule of the Tudors. From these Wars, English feudalism received its death blow. The great medieval nobility was much weakened.
玫瑰戰(zhàn)爭是指，從1455年到1485年，以紅玫瑰為象征的蘭開斯特家族和以白玫瑰為象征的約克家族之間戰(zhàn)爭。1485年，蘭開斯特家族的后代亨利都鐸取得了博斯沃恩戰(zhàn)役的勝利，建立了都鐸王朝。這些戰(zhàn)爭使英國的封建主義受到致命打擊，貴族階層受到了削弱。
II. The English Reformation
英國的宗教改革
Henry VIII was above all responsible for the religious reform of the church. There were three main causes: a desire for change and reform in the church had been growing for many years and now, encouraged by the success of Martin Luther, many people believed its time had come; the privilege and wealth of the clergy were resented; and Henry needed money.
最重要的是，亨利八世促成了教會的宗教改革。改革原因有三個主要方面：改革教會的渴望已有多年，現(xiàn)在又受馬丁路德成功的鼓舞，許多人認為時機已到;人們痛恨教職人員的威望和財富;亨利需要錢。
The reform began as a struggle for a divorce and ended in freedom from the Papacy. Henry VIII wanted to divorce Catherine of Aragon but the Pope refused. Henry's reforms was to get rid of the English Church's connection with the Pope, and to make an independent Church of England. He made this break with Rome gradually between 1529 and 1534. He dissolved all of England's monasteries and nunneries because they were more loyal to the Pope than to their English kings. The laws such as the Act of succession of 1534 and the Act of Supremacy of 1535 made his reform possible. He established the church of England as the national church of the country, and he made himself the supreme head of the church of England.
改革以爭取離婚而開始，以脫離教皇而告終。亨利八世欲與阿拉貢的凱瑟琳離婚，但是教皇拒絕了。亨利改革的目的是擺脫英國教會與教皇的聯(lián)系，成立獨立的英格蘭教會。1529年至1534年間英國教會逐漸地與羅馬脫離了關系。亨利解散了所有英國的修道院和修女院，因為后者對教皇比對英國國王更忠誠。1534年的《繼位法》和1535年的《至尊法案》使改革具有了可行性。1535年他獲"英格蘭教會最高首腦"之稱號。
Henry VIII's reform stressed the power of the monarch and certainly strengthened Henry's position; Parliament had never done such a long and important piece of work before, its importance grew as a result. His attack on the Pope's power encouraged many critics of abuses of the Catholic Church. England was moving away form Catholicism towards protestaintism.
改革的三大影響：亨利的改革強調(diào)了君主權力，自然加強了亨利的地位;議會以往從未做過如此漫長而重要的工作，自然其重要性也有所加強;他對教皇權力的打擊鼓舞許多人批評指責天主教會。英國從此從天主教轉(zhuǎn)向新教。
III. Elizabeth I (1558-1603)
伊莉莎白一世(1558年-1603年)
Elizabeth's religious reform was a compromise of views. She broke Mary's ties with Rome and restored her father's independent Church of England, i.e. keeping to Catholic doctrines and practices but to be free of the Papal control. He religious settlement was unacceptable to both the extreme Protestants known as Puritans and to ardent Catholics. For nearly 30 years Elizabeth successfully played off against each other the two great Catholic powers, France and Spain, and prevented England from getting involved in any major European conflict. Through her marriage alliances which were never materialized, Elizabeth managed to maintain a friendly relationship with France. So England wad able to face the danger from Spain.
伊莉莎白的宗教改革是各種觀點的妥協(xié)。她中斷瑪麗與羅馬的關系，恢復父王獨立的英格蘭教會，也就是說保持天主教教條及習俗，但不受教皇控制。她的宗教和解既不被極端的新教徒(即清教徒)所接受，也不為虔誠的天主教徒所接受。近30年的時間里，伊莉莎白成功地令兩大天主教強國法國和西班牙互相廝殺，從而免于英國卷入任何主要的歐洲國的沖突。通過她從未實現(xiàn)的聯(lián)姻，伊莉莎白設法與法國維持友好關系，因此英國能面對來自西班牙的危險。
IV. The English Renaissance
英國文藝復興
Distinctive features of the English Renaissance: 1) English culture was revitalized not so much directly by the classics as by contemporary Europeans under the influence of the classics; 2) England as an insular country followed a course of social and political history which was to a great extent independent of the course of history elsewhere in Europe; 3) Owing to the great genius of the 14th century poet Chaucer, the native literature was sufficiently vigorous and experienced in assimilating for foreign influences without being subjected by them; 4) English Renaissance coincided with the Reformation in England.
英國文藝復興的五個特點：1)英國文化的復興并不是直接通過古典作品，而是通過受古典作品影響的同時代的歐洲人實現(xiàn)的;2)英格蘭作為一個與大陸隔離的國家，其社會歷史進程很大程度上獨立于歐洲其它國家;3)由于14世紀偉大的天才詩人喬叟的出現(xiàn)，英國本國文學得以蓬勃發(fā)展，能夠在吸收外國文學影響的同時，并未處于從屬地位;4)文藝復興和英格蘭的宗教改革在時間上有所交叉。
VI. The Civil Wars and their consequences
內(nèi)戰(zhàn)及其后果
Because of the absolute rule of Charles, the confrontation between Charles I and the parliament developed into the civil war. The war began on August 22,1642 and ended in 1651. Charles I was condemned to death. The English Civil War is also called the Puritan Revolution. It has been seen as a conflict between the parliament and the King, and a conflict between economic interests of the Crown. The economic interests of the urban middle classed coincided with their religious (Puritan) ideology while the Crown's traditional economic interests correspondingly allied with Anglican religious belief. The English Civil War not only overthrew feudal system in England but also shook the foundation of the feudal rule in Europe. It is generally regarded as the beginning of modern world history.
由于查爾斯的獨裁統(tǒng)治，他與議會的對峙發(fā)展成了內(nèi)戰(zhàn)。戰(zhàn)爭開始于1642年8月22日，結束于1651年。最后查爾斯被處死。英國內(nèi)戰(zhàn)又稱為清教徒革命。這是議會和國王間的沖突，也是城市中產(chǎn)階級的經(jīng)濟利益與皇室傳統(tǒng)經(jīng)濟利益之間的沖突。城市中產(chǎn)階級經(jīng)濟利益剛好與他們的宗教(清教)思想吻合，相應地，皇室傳統(tǒng)的經(jīng)濟利益則與圣公會教的宗教信仰相結合在一起。英國內(nèi)戰(zhàn)不僅推翻了英國的封建制度，而且動搖了歐洲封建經(jīng)濟的基礎。英國內(nèi)戰(zhàn)通常被看作是世界現(xiàn)代史的開端。
VII. The Restoration
王政復辟
When Oliver Cromwell died in 1658 and was succeeded by his son, Richard, the regime began to collapse. One of Cromwell's generals George Monck, occupied London and arranged for new parliamentary elections. The Parliament thus was elected in 1660 resolved the crisis by asking the late King's son to return from his exile in France as king Charles II. It was called the Restoration.
1658年奧利弗·克倫威爾去世，他的兒子理查德繼任護國公，政權立即開始瓦解。克倫威爾的一位將軍喬治蒙克占領倫敦，安排新的議會選舉。1660年選出的議會要求上一任國王的兒子從流亡地法國回國作國王查爾斯二世，從而解決了危機。這就是所謂的王政復辟。
VIII. The Glorious Revolution of 1688
1688年光榮革命
In 1685 Charles II died and was succeeded by his brother James II. James was brought up in exile in Europe, was a Catholic. He hoped to rule without giving up his personal religious vies. But England was no more tolerant of a Catholic king in 1688 than 40 years ago. So the English politicians rejected James II, and appealed to a Protestant king, William of Orange, to invade and take the English throne. William landed in England in 1688. The takeover was relatively smooth, with no bloodshed, nor any execution of the king. This was known as the Glorious Revolution.
1685年查爾斯二世去世，由其弟詹姆斯二世繼位。詹姆斯二世從小在歐洲流亡長大，是個天主教徒，他希望不放棄個人宗教信仰統(tǒng)治國家。但是1688的英國已不象40年前那樣能容忍天主教徒當國王了。英國政客反對詹姆斯二世，他們呼吁信奉新教的奧蘭治親王威廉入侵英國奪取王位。1688年11月15日威廉在托爾比登陸并占領倫敦。這一占領相對平靜，既未流血也未處死國王，所以就稱為"光榮革命"。
IX. The Gunpowder Plot of 1605
1605年火藥陰謀
The Gunpowder Plot of 1605 was the most famous of the Catholic conspiracies. On Nov. 5,1605, a few fanatical Catholics attempted to blow King James and his ministers up in the House of Parliament where Guy Fawkes had planted barrels of gun-powder in the cellars. The immediate result was the execution of Fawkes and his fellow-conspirators and imposition of severe anti Catholic laws. The long-term result has been an annual celebration on Nov. 5, when a bonfire is lit to turn a guy and a firework display is arranged.
1605年的火藥陰謀案是最著名的天主教陰謀。1605年11月5日，幾個狂熱的天主教徒企圖在議會大廈炸死國王和大臣，蓋伊·?？怂挂言诘亟逊帕苏ㄋ幫啊＝Y果是?？怂购屯锉涣⒓刺幩溃约案鼑绤柕姆刺熘鹘谭傻念C發(fā)。長期效應則是每年11月5日舉行慶祝儀式，點燃火堆焚燒蓋伊畫像并燃放煙火。