2013年3月24日托福閱讀考察三篇文章請大家分別參照TPO13的Methods of studying infants perception，TPO8的Running Water on Mars，TPO22的The Birth of Photography。
第一篇 嬰兒對物體的認(rèn)識(infant perception)
版本一：
有幾個例子，1、一個P***********認(rèn)為嬰兒有個什么principle，把兩個物體的表面在一起以為是同一物體，還做了個實驗。他覺得這種現(xiàn)象是嬰兒天生的born built-in。還做了個實驗，球在screen后面滾向墻壁，然后放另外的板子在原來前后blabla，如果不是新題的話我也懶得說了，自己找去2、另一個科學(xué)家覺得嬰兒的blabla能力是后天expierence里面獲得的blabla。。。
版本二：
文中主要有兩種觀點，先說嬰兒有些能力是天生的，知道物體是怎樣運動的，如果你給他看一個連續(xù)的物體運動，一直重復(fù)，他會不耐煩，失去興趣;后來又有一種觀點，認(rèn)為這種能力不是天生的，但是可以根據(jù)后天的經(jīng)歷進(jìn)行調(diào)整，學(xué)習(xí)什么的，并且做了一個實驗，由三個小實驗組成嬰兒對那個最奇怪的實驗 (screen動了之后，球出現(xiàn)在impossible出現(xiàn)的地方)感興趣……
版本三：
講一個關(guān)于孩子是生來就具備了解object的能力還是后來慢慢培養(yǎng)的。有個人說是生來就是有的(內(nèi)含兩個分論點)，做了實驗。有圖三個，墻和兩個小球位置。證明三五個月孩子知道球不能穿過墻。又有個反對，他說生來有很少一些，根據(jù)experience后天增長的更多。做實驗。
Infant Cognitive Development
Definition: The cognitive development of infants is the part of developmental psychology that studies the internal mental states of infants and very young children. How infants begin to think, remember and process information is valuable knowledge to many disciplines, and remains largely unknown due to experimental challenges, philosophical questions (nativism), and infant amnesia.
Development of Common Sense
Causality Rules
Babies less than a year old can distinguish causal events from non-causal ones that have similar spatio-temporal properties. When one solid object appears to pass through another, infants are surprised. They distinguish objects that move only when acted upon from ones that are capable of self-generated motion (the inanimate/animate distinction).
Other People
They assume that the self-propelled movement of animate objects is caused by invisible internal states—of goals and intentions—whose presence must be inferred, since internal states cannot be seen.
Physical Laws
Largely thanks to the innovative strategies developed by Renee Baillargeon and her colleagues, considerable knowledge has been gained in the last 25 years about how young infants come to understand natural physical laws. Much of this research depends on carefully observing when infants react as if events are unexpected. For example, if an infant sees an object that appears to be suspended in mid-air, and behaves as if this is unexpected, then this suggests that the infant has an understanding that things usually fall if they are not supported. Baillargeon and her colleagues have contributed evidence, for example, about infants’ understanding of object permanence and their reasoning about hidden objects.
Symbolic Thought
Symbolic thought refers to the ability to use words, images, and other symbols to represent words or feelings. During the preoperational stage a child's capacity for symbolism increases, this is shown by their increase in language use during this stage. This can also be seen by the way children play with objects, a stick becomes a sword and a box becomes armor. Children in this stage still might not understand that a map represents a real place, and that a picture of food does not have a smell.[ ^ Hockenbury,Don and Hockenbury, Sandra "Discovering Psychology:Fifth Edition". Worth Publishers, 2010, p. 389.]
Self-awareness
Self-awareness is widely believed among psychologists to typically develop at about the age of one. Self awareness is the realization that one's body, mind, and actions are separate from those of other people. Tests performed for self-consciousness include applying a dot on a subject's nose, and then placing them in front of a mirror – —if they start to investigate the dot and touch their nose, it appears that they may realize their own existence in a self-aware sense. Most other species will assume that the animal in the mirror is another animal.
Object Permanence
Object permanence is the understanding that an object continues to exist, even when one cannot see it or touch it. It is an important milestone in the stages of cognitive development for infants. Numerous tests regarding it have been done, usually involving a toy and a crude barrier which is placed in front of the toy, and then removed repeatedly (peekaboo). In early sensorimotor stages, the infant is completely unable to comprehend object permanence. Psychologist Jean Piaget conducted experiments with infants which led him to conclude that this awareness was typically achieved at eight to nine months of age. Infants before this age are too young to understand object permanence, which explains why infants at this age do not cry when their mothers are gone – "Out of sight, out of mind". A lack of object permanence can lead to A-not-B errors, where children look for an object at the location where they first discovered it rather than where they have just seen it placed.